Unification of Italy
1848 revolutions:
Causes:
Peasant discontent:
Anti-Austrian feeling:
For example, in Milan, revolt against Austrian heavy taxes and conscription
Middle class discontent:
Brief overview
During this period, there were revolutions breaking out throughout Europe and the Italian Peninsula
12th Jan. 1848- First revolutions in Palermo (capital of Sicily) calling for a constitution
Granted shortly, but revolution crushed by Austria, and constitution revoked
Ideas spread to Naples, revolt, but soon crushed by Ferdinand
Revolt in Milan led to periodically driving out Austrians, but retaken in August
Venetia, Parma and Moderna revolts the defeated by Austria, similar to Lombardy
Tuscany, duke granted constitution and introduced parliament
o Due to revolts, the constitution was revoked in July 1849
War against Austria twice
Rome
March 1848- Pope grants constitution
April 1848- Papal allocution condemning war against hated Austria, losing liberal reputation
November 1848- flees Rome creating political vacuum
February 1849- Mazzini leads Roman Republic
Mazzini introduced radical policies
June 1849- France puts Rome under siege and defeats republic
3 July- French troops enter Rome, pave the way for Pius to return
April 1850- Pius finally enters Rome
Why it failed
Financial position
Abolition of macinato tax (tax on grinding corn)- appeals to peasantry, gains more support
o Substantial amount of governments revenue reduced- more vulnerable fiscal position
Programme of public works (building) was set up to try reduce unemployment
, o Increased spenditure, need money to do something like this
o In a very vulnerable position
Overall, the Roman Republic did not have a secure financial foothold, increasing and reducing taxation meant
less income into the government made its economic position more precarious
Too extremist polices
All religions could be practiced freely
Seizure of Church’s land by the new republican government for redistribution
o Anti-clerical laws, reducing power of church, Papal states is a very
End to press censorship
o Freedom of speech, liberal policy
French intervention
Had enemies because Pius calling on Catholic nations to help him
Garibaldi’s army of 4,000 v 20,000 of General Oudiot French troops
Reasons for failure
Lack of support for revolutionaries
Most peasants had little interest in nationalist ideas
o Made up majority of population, who did not really care
o Politics in a very literate affair, many people not educated enough to read
o With less support, easier for Great Powers such as Austria and France to crush
Little interest in greater rule by Piedmont
o Most did not share Piedmont’s military and aristocracy's desire for dynastic expansion long peninsula at
this point
o Piedmont not noticeably advanced at this point, no Cavour, not very special
Many viewed Mazzini’s defenses in Rome as terrifying, reminded of horror of French revolution
o Roman and Florentine republic too extreme for some
A lot of states cared about a regional system locally rather than internationally
No support from foreign powers
o Too weak alone
o France intervened in Rome, Austria too strong as great power
Austrian military intervention
Only able to gain momentum when Austria was struggling due to fall on Mettnich in March 1848
o After able to regain strength, much easier to crush revolutions
Strength of Austrian army under leader Radetzky
Superior in numbers, better equipped, more experienced troops
o Had 70,000 whereas Piedmont could raise 20,000 at most
Did not have enough allies to match the strength of Great Power
o Had no foreign support that could match great power
Could rely upon effective defence provided by Quadrilateral
, o Piedmontese or revolutionaries could not beat him
Nearly all state rulers in Peninsula had a connection to Austria and could call upon great power for assistance
I Defeated revolutions in:
Defeated Piedmont twice (Custozza and Novara)
Not organized well/ lack of unity
Secret societies not organized effectively
Not strong leadership in Piedmont, let Austrians retreat into Quadrilateral, defeated easily by Austrian army
Victor Emmanuel would not accept volunteers into his army unless swore alliance to him first
o Smaller army, weaker military, easier for Austria to crush
o Had his ow agenda, to promote Piedmontese aggrandisement
Unable to agree on leader who could co-ordinate policy
o Pope was against the revolutions and war in Austria
Provisional governments did not all follow one view, some moderate, some extremist
o Leaders in Milan were divided between moderates and republicans
Liberals want constitution, did not want something as extreme as radicals suggested- a republic
Constitutionalism brought chaos, of political stability or continuity, no strong leadership in those states
Pope Pius IX and French intervention
Pius failed to take the lead in 1848, and refused to fight against Austria
o No longer seen as liberal and loses liberal reputation after granting constitution
No longer seen as potential leader, lack of leadership to revolutionaries as he does not offer it
His influence meant some turned against revolution
Not taking on the role undermined revolutionaries
Weaker, less support
Involved the French great power to come and crush the revolution in Rome
o French General Ouano oversaw 20,000 troops
o Garibaldi head of military arm of Roman Republic
o If had not been so strong, revolution in Rome could have been successful
Legacy
Victor Emmanuel and the Statuto (piedmontese liberalism)
Following his second defeat of Austria, Charles Albert had to abdicate in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel in
order to preserve the Piedmontese monarchy
Victor Emmanuel retained the constitution due to the loss of the war against Austria and the treat of Milan
1849, to keep people happy he retained the Statuto
Protect the existence of monarchy in Piedmont
Implied by Austria the buffer state could only stay independent if retained constitution
Only constitution upheld in Italian peninsula
o Gave Piedmont a liberal identity
o Attracted exiles from other states
o Degree of sympathy and support from Britain
Austrian dominance
1848 revolutions:
Causes:
Peasant discontent:
Anti-Austrian feeling:
For example, in Milan, revolt against Austrian heavy taxes and conscription
Middle class discontent:
Brief overview
During this period, there were revolutions breaking out throughout Europe and the Italian Peninsula
12th Jan. 1848- First revolutions in Palermo (capital of Sicily) calling for a constitution
Granted shortly, but revolution crushed by Austria, and constitution revoked
Ideas spread to Naples, revolt, but soon crushed by Ferdinand
Revolt in Milan led to periodically driving out Austrians, but retaken in August
Venetia, Parma and Moderna revolts the defeated by Austria, similar to Lombardy
Tuscany, duke granted constitution and introduced parliament
o Due to revolts, the constitution was revoked in July 1849
War against Austria twice
Rome
March 1848- Pope grants constitution
April 1848- Papal allocution condemning war against hated Austria, losing liberal reputation
November 1848- flees Rome creating political vacuum
February 1849- Mazzini leads Roman Republic
Mazzini introduced radical policies
June 1849- France puts Rome under siege and defeats republic
3 July- French troops enter Rome, pave the way for Pius to return
April 1850- Pius finally enters Rome
Why it failed
Financial position
Abolition of macinato tax (tax on grinding corn)- appeals to peasantry, gains more support
o Substantial amount of governments revenue reduced- more vulnerable fiscal position
Programme of public works (building) was set up to try reduce unemployment
, o Increased spenditure, need money to do something like this
o In a very vulnerable position
Overall, the Roman Republic did not have a secure financial foothold, increasing and reducing taxation meant
less income into the government made its economic position more precarious
Too extremist polices
All religions could be practiced freely
Seizure of Church’s land by the new republican government for redistribution
o Anti-clerical laws, reducing power of church, Papal states is a very
End to press censorship
o Freedom of speech, liberal policy
French intervention
Had enemies because Pius calling on Catholic nations to help him
Garibaldi’s army of 4,000 v 20,000 of General Oudiot French troops
Reasons for failure
Lack of support for revolutionaries
Most peasants had little interest in nationalist ideas
o Made up majority of population, who did not really care
o Politics in a very literate affair, many people not educated enough to read
o With less support, easier for Great Powers such as Austria and France to crush
Little interest in greater rule by Piedmont
o Most did not share Piedmont’s military and aristocracy's desire for dynastic expansion long peninsula at
this point
o Piedmont not noticeably advanced at this point, no Cavour, not very special
Many viewed Mazzini’s defenses in Rome as terrifying, reminded of horror of French revolution
o Roman and Florentine republic too extreme for some
A lot of states cared about a regional system locally rather than internationally
No support from foreign powers
o Too weak alone
o France intervened in Rome, Austria too strong as great power
Austrian military intervention
Only able to gain momentum when Austria was struggling due to fall on Mettnich in March 1848
o After able to regain strength, much easier to crush revolutions
Strength of Austrian army under leader Radetzky
Superior in numbers, better equipped, more experienced troops
o Had 70,000 whereas Piedmont could raise 20,000 at most
Did not have enough allies to match the strength of Great Power
o Had no foreign support that could match great power
Could rely upon effective defence provided by Quadrilateral
, o Piedmontese or revolutionaries could not beat him
Nearly all state rulers in Peninsula had a connection to Austria and could call upon great power for assistance
I Defeated revolutions in:
Defeated Piedmont twice (Custozza and Novara)
Not organized well/ lack of unity
Secret societies not organized effectively
Not strong leadership in Piedmont, let Austrians retreat into Quadrilateral, defeated easily by Austrian army
Victor Emmanuel would not accept volunteers into his army unless swore alliance to him first
o Smaller army, weaker military, easier for Austria to crush
o Had his ow agenda, to promote Piedmontese aggrandisement
Unable to agree on leader who could co-ordinate policy
o Pope was against the revolutions and war in Austria
Provisional governments did not all follow one view, some moderate, some extremist
o Leaders in Milan were divided between moderates and republicans
Liberals want constitution, did not want something as extreme as radicals suggested- a republic
Constitutionalism brought chaos, of political stability or continuity, no strong leadership in those states
Pope Pius IX and French intervention
Pius failed to take the lead in 1848, and refused to fight against Austria
o No longer seen as liberal and loses liberal reputation after granting constitution
No longer seen as potential leader, lack of leadership to revolutionaries as he does not offer it
His influence meant some turned against revolution
Not taking on the role undermined revolutionaries
Weaker, less support
Involved the French great power to come and crush the revolution in Rome
o French General Ouano oversaw 20,000 troops
o Garibaldi head of military arm of Roman Republic
o If had not been so strong, revolution in Rome could have been successful
Legacy
Victor Emmanuel and the Statuto (piedmontese liberalism)
Following his second defeat of Austria, Charles Albert had to abdicate in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel in
order to preserve the Piedmontese monarchy
Victor Emmanuel retained the constitution due to the loss of the war against Austria and the treat of Milan
1849, to keep people happy he retained the Statuto
Protect the existence of monarchy in Piedmont
Implied by Austria the buffer state could only stay independent if retained constitution
Only constitution upheld in Italian peninsula
o Gave Piedmont a liberal identity
o Attracted exiles from other states
o Degree of sympathy and support from Britain
Austrian dominance
