A-level Psychology AQA Paper 1 2024
Kelman - ✔✔1958. Proposed three types of conformity.
Conformity - ✔✔Yielding to group pressure. Behaviour and/or beliefs are influenced by a larger group
of people.
Internalisation - ✔✔Public and private. Validation process. Change own beliefs.
Identification - ✔✔Accept influence to establish a relationship with a group. To feel part of a group.
Internalisation and compliance.
Compliance - ✔✔Public not private. No change in personal opinion. To fain approval. To fit in with a
group
Informational social influence - ✔✔A type of internalisation. Accepts information from others as
evidence about reality. More confidence in their beliefs.
Normative social influence - ✔✔Go along with the majority without accepting their point of view
whilst believing that they are under surveillance by the group.
Evaluation of types of conformity - ✔✔Difficulties in distinguishing between compliance and
internalisation.
Research support for normative social influence - Linkenbach and Perkins (2003)
Research support for informational influence - Wittenbrink and Henley (1996)
Normative influence may not be detected - Nolan et al (2008)
Informational influence is moderated by task type
Asch - ✔✔1956. Tested conformity. Tested 123 male US undergraduates. Groups of all but one
confederate. Asked to identify the two of three lines that were the same length. The real participant
answered second to last. In different conditions ("critical trials" 12/18 trials) the confederates were
instructed to give the same incorrect answer. On the 12 critical tasks the average conformity rate was
33%. ¼ never conformed in any of the critical trials. ½ conformed in six or more of the critical trials. ¹∕₂₀
conformed in all 12 critical tasks. In control conditions (confederates not answering wrong) participants
made mistakes about 1% of the time.
Evaluation of Asch - ✔✔Asch's research may be a child of its time - Perrin and Spencer (1980)
Problems with determinging the effect of group size - Bond (2005)
,Independent behaviour rather than conformity.
Unconvincing confederates.
Cultural differences in conformity - Smith et al (2006)
Perrin and Spencer - ✔✔1980. Attempted to repeat Asch's study in the UK using science and
engineering students. They only obtained one conforming response out of 396 trials. In a subsequent
study (youths on probation and probation officers as participants and confederates respectively) hey
found that conformity was more likely to occur if the percieved cost of not performing was greater.
Bond - ✔✔2005. Suggests a limitation of research in conformity is that studies have only a limited
range of majority sizes. No studies other than Asch have used a greater majority than 9 so in reality very
little is known about the effect of larger majority sizes on conformity.
Group size - ✔✔How large or small a group of participants is.
Unanimity - ✔✔Where everyone agrees.
Task difficulty - ✔✔How easy or hard a part of an experiment is.
Variables affecting conformity - ✔✔Group size, Unanimity, Task difficulty
Stanford prison experiment - ✔✔1973. Aimed to investigate how readily people would conform to
social roles of guard and prisoner in a role-playing exercise that simulated prison life. 21 male university
student volunteers were allocated social roles (either prisoner or guard). The prisoners were
dehumanised ("arrested", delousing procedure, prison number).
Zimbardo took the role of prison superintendent. The prisoners and guards quickly identified with their
roles with the guards becoming tyrannical and abusive towards the prisoners who became passive.
Experiment was stopped after 6 days (planned 2 weeks).
Evaluation of Stanford prison experiment - ✔✔Conformity to roles is not automatic.
The problem of demand characteristics - Banuazizi and Movahedi (1975)
Ethical issues
Real world relevance - Abu Ghraib
Banuazizi and Movahedi - ✔✔1975. Argued that the behaviour of Zimbardo's guards and prisoners
was not due to their response to a 'compelling prison environment', but rather to the characteristics in
the experimental situation itself.
BBC prison study - ✔✔2006 . Tried to recreate the results of the Stanford prison experiment.
Broadcast on tv. Participants did not confrom automatically to social roles.
, Social roles - ✔✔Behaviour expected of an individual who occupies a given position or status.
Milgram - ✔✔1963. 40 participants (male) assigned as the role of "teacher". Had to give 'electric
shocks' to 'another participant' the "learner" who in reality was a confederate/actor. The experiment
would continue until the participant refused to continue or 450 volts was reached. If the "teacher" tried
to stop the experimenter would say "the experiment requires that you continue" etc (x4 5th stop). All of
the participants went to at least 300 volts. 65% continued until the full 450 volts.
Evaluation of Milgram - ✔✔Ethical issues
Internal validity (a lack of realism) - Orne and Holland (1968), Perry (2012)
Individual differences (the influenceof gender)
External validity (the obedience alibi) - Mandel (1998)
Historical validity - Burger (2009)
Orne and Holland - ✔✔1968. Claimed that participants in psychological studies have learned to
distrust experimenters because they know that the true purpose of the study may be disguised.
Perry - ✔✔2012. Discovered that many of Milgram's participants had been sceptical at the time about
whether the shocks were real.
Obedience - ✔✔A type of social influence whereby somebody acts in response to a direct order from
a figure of perceived authority.
Situational variables - ✔✔Proximity. Location. Uniform
Proximity - ✔✔How close two people are in relation to distance
Location - ✔✔Where the experiment takes place
Uniform - ✔✔What a person is wearing (usually someone involved in the running of an experiment,
not a participant)
Agentic state - ✔✔A person sees himself/herself as an agent for carrying out another persons wishes.
People allow others to direct their actions, and then pass off responsibility for the consequences to the
person giving orders.
Legitimate authority - ✔✔A person who is perceived to be in a position of social control within a
situation
Authoritarian personality - ✔✔A distinct personality pattern characterised by strict adherence to
conventional values and a belief in absolute obedience or submission to authority.
Kelman - ✔✔1958. Proposed three types of conformity.
Conformity - ✔✔Yielding to group pressure. Behaviour and/or beliefs are influenced by a larger group
of people.
Internalisation - ✔✔Public and private. Validation process. Change own beliefs.
Identification - ✔✔Accept influence to establish a relationship with a group. To feel part of a group.
Internalisation and compliance.
Compliance - ✔✔Public not private. No change in personal opinion. To fain approval. To fit in with a
group
Informational social influence - ✔✔A type of internalisation. Accepts information from others as
evidence about reality. More confidence in their beliefs.
Normative social influence - ✔✔Go along with the majority without accepting their point of view
whilst believing that they are under surveillance by the group.
Evaluation of types of conformity - ✔✔Difficulties in distinguishing between compliance and
internalisation.
Research support for normative social influence - Linkenbach and Perkins (2003)
Research support for informational influence - Wittenbrink and Henley (1996)
Normative influence may not be detected - Nolan et al (2008)
Informational influence is moderated by task type
Asch - ✔✔1956. Tested conformity. Tested 123 male US undergraduates. Groups of all but one
confederate. Asked to identify the two of three lines that were the same length. The real participant
answered second to last. In different conditions ("critical trials" 12/18 trials) the confederates were
instructed to give the same incorrect answer. On the 12 critical tasks the average conformity rate was
33%. ¼ never conformed in any of the critical trials. ½ conformed in six or more of the critical trials. ¹∕₂₀
conformed in all 12 critical tasks. In control conditions (confederates not answering wrong) participants
made mistakes about 1% of the time.
Evaluation of Asch - ✔✔Asch's research may be a child of its time - Perrin and Spencer (1980)
Problems with determinging the effect of group size - Bond (2005)
,Independent behaviour rather than conformity.
Unconvincing confederates.
Cultural differences in conformity - Smith et al (2006)
Perrin and Spencer - ✔✔1980. Attempted to repeat Asch's study in the UK using science and
engineering students. They only obtained one conforming response out of 396 trials. In a subsequent
study (youths on probation and probation officers as participants and confederates respectively) hey
found that conformity was more likely to occur if the percieved cost of not performing was greater.
Bond - ✔✔2005. Suggests a limitation of research in conformity is that studies have only a limited
range of majority sizes. No studies other than Asch have used a greater majority than 9 so in reality very
little is known about the effect of larger majority sizes on conformity.
Group size - ✔✔How large or small a group of participants is.
Unanimity - ✔✔Where everyone agrees.
Task difficulty - ✔✔How easy or hard a part of an experiment is.
Variables affecting conformity - ✔✔Group size, Unanimity, Task difficulty
Stanford prison experiment - ✔✔1973. Aimed to investigate how readily people would conform to
social roles of guard and prisoner in a role-playing exercise that simulated prison life. 21 male university
student volunteers were allocated social roles (either prisoner or guard). The prisoners were
dehumanised ("arrested", delousing procedure, prison number).
Zimbardo took the role of prison superintendent. The prisoners and guards quickly identified with their
roles with the guards becoming tyrannical and abusive towards the prisoners who became passive.
Experiment was stopped after 6 days (planned 2 weeks).
Evaluation of Stanford prison experiment - ✔✔Conformity to roles is not automatic.
The problem of demand characteristics - Banuazizi and Movahedi (1975)
Ethical issues
Real world relevance - Abu Ghraib
Banuazizi and Movahedi - ✔✔1975. Argued that the behaviour of Zimbardo's guards and prisoners
was not due to their response to a 'compelling prison environment', but rather to the characteristics in
the experimental situation itself.
BBC prison study - ✔✔2006 . Tried to recreate the results of the Stanford prison experiment.
Broadcast on tv. Participants did not confrom automatically to social roles.
, Social roles - ✔✔Behaviour expected of an individual who occupies a given position or status.
Milgram - ✔✔1963. 40 participants (male) assigned as the role of "teacher". Had to give 'electric
shocks' to 'another participant' the "learner" who in reality was a confederate/actor. The experiment
would continue until the participant refused to continue or 450 volts was reached. If the "teacher" tried
to stop the experimenter would say "the experiment requires that you continue" etc (x4 5th stop). All of
the participants went to at least 300 volts. 65% continued until the full 450 volts.
Evaluation of Milgram - ✔✔Ethical issues
Internal validity (a lack of realism) - Orne and Holland (1968), Perry (2012)
Individual differences (the influenceof gender)
External validity (the obedience alibi) - Mandel (1998)
Historical validity - Burger (2009)
Orne and Holland - ✔✔1968. Claimed that participants in psychological studies have learned to
distrust experimenters because they know that the true purpose of the study may be disguised.
Perry - ✔✔2012. Discovered that many of Milgram's participants had been sceptical at the time about
whether the shocks were real.
Obedience - ✔✔A type of social influence whereby somebody acts in response to a direct order from
a figure of perceived authority.
Situational variables - ✔✔Proximity. Location. Uniform
Proximity - ✔✔How close two people are in relation to distance
Location - ✔✔Where the experiment takes place
Uniform - ✔✔What a person is wearing (usually someone involved in the running of an experiment,
not a participant)
Agentic state - ✔✔A person sees himself/herself as an agent for carrying out another persons wishes.
People allow others to direct their actions, and then pass off responsibility for the consequences to the
person giving orders.
Legitimate authority - ✔✔A person who is perceived to be in a position of social control within a
situation
Authoritarian personality - ✔✔A distinct personality pattern characterised by strict adherence to
conventional values and a belief in absolute obedience or submission to authority.
