TEST BANK For Human - Growth and Development

TEST BANK For Human - Growth and Development.INTRODUCTION HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Course Content 1. Introduction: Definition of terms, Importance of studying human growth and development, General principles of human growth and development, Historical perspectives of the study of human growth and development, Developmental needs 2. Research techniques used in the study of human growth and development 3. Theories and determinants of human growth and development 4. Periods/stages of human growth and development a) Prenatal Development i) Development from conception to birth ii) Factors affecting prenatal development iii) The neonate b) Developmental Aspects/Tasks i) Physical/Motor development ii) Development of perception iii) Cognitive development iv) Language development v) Social development vi) Emotional development vii) Moral development viii) Personality development c) Adolescent Development d) Adulthood, Aging and Death TEST BANK For Human - Growth and Development TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION DEFINITION OF TERMS 1. Growth Growth refers to the physical and physiological changes that occur throughout life. These changes are quantitative such as physical growth (change in weight and height) and occur during the early phases of life up to adolescent years. Quantitative changes refer to measurable and obvious features of human development. 2.Development Development refers to change in function and such changes are non-organic and usually qualitative, for example language usage, thought processing, reading skills, and peer relationships. Qualitative changes refer to the alterations in human functioning through the life span. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 1) Development is achieved through growth. One can grow but not develop. For example, a child can increase in size but may not be able to walk. 2) Development is a continuous life long process while growth is limited. 3) Growth refers to organic changes while development refers to non-organic – functional changes. 4) Growth is quantitative while development is qualitative PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT: Principles are general patterns that hold true in describing the way human being develops. The main principles are given below: - 1. Development follows a definite orderly sequential and predictable pattern rather than random. For example, a child sits, then stands and walks. The order cannot be reversed. 2. Development follows two directional trends: - i. Cephalo caudal trend– development proceeds from the head to the heel. For example, the child can hold the head upright and use the hands before walking or using the legs. ii. Proximodistal trend – development proceeds from the centerline of the body to the other parts. For example, the child can wave the hands before using the fingers to pick something. 3. Although development is a continuous process, it is not always smooth and gradual. There are growth spurts, that is periods of accelerated growth. For example, the first two years and the adolescent period are periods of accelerated growth. 4. There are critical or sensitive periods in the development of body organs and psychological functions. These are periods when the potential for growth as well as harm from the environment is at its maximum. Any interference may result in permanent deficiencies or malfunction, for example fourteenth to ninetieth day. This is the period when most of the organs of the body are developing. 5. All developmental changes are a product of two basic processes – maturation (heredity) and experience (learning). 6. Development is shaped by its historical/cultural context. For example, those born in the age of computers and Internet are likely to have different experiences. 7. Different aspects of development are interrelated. For example, physical development will influence social and mental development. 8. Human development is a holistic process and not piecemeal. 9. Development is an individualized process. That is, each child has a characteristic rate of development regardless of the stage of development. These differences may be due to genetic factors, nutrition, illness, lack of exercise, etc. 10. Development proceeds from general to specific and simple to complex. For example, babies move their arms (gross movement) before grasping with thumb and index finger (specific). 11. Development is a cumulative process, i.e. changes do not emerge all of a sudden. Past events often have implications for the future. 12. There is much plasticity in human development. Plasticity refers to the capacity for change in response to positive or negative life experiences. The cause of development can change abruptly if important aspects of ones life change. IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 1) The teacher must know the basic principles of growth and development and the characteristics that emerge at different age levels in order to provide effective guidance for harmonious development of children. 2) Children come to school with individual differences due to their different homes and environment. The teacher needs to know the potentialities and capabilities of each and every child so that he may exploit them to the maximum for the benefit of society. 3) To ensure continuity from the past to the present, the teacher needs to understand past aspects of development. The teacher will understand the present in terms of its past. What students are is as a result of what they have been through. 4) The teacher is an agent of socialization and there is need to know those whom he will socialize in order to facilitate their development as good citizens. 5) The teacher needs to know and understand the basis of development and what is abnormal. 6) To improve the quality of learning and teaching because the teacher knows the normal characteristics of children at different ages. 7) The teacher will be able to understand himself/herself better. SUMMARY Growth and development is both quantitative and qualitative. There are general patterns or principles of development. It is important to study human growth and development so as to understand others and ourselves around us. TOPIC TWO: RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGNS IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT The following are the various methods of research in human growth and development: - 1 Observation This is a data collection strategy in which the ongoing behavior of individuals is recorded with as little interaction between observer and subject as possible. The goal of this research is to determine exactly what individuals are doing in a specific setting. Observational techniques have the following advantages and disadvantages. Advantages • Observes subjects in their natural settings. • Development can be observed in various stages. • The researcher does not impose themselves on the subjects. • Is important for determining how children and adults’ function in their everyday life. Disadvantages • It does not answer the question of cause and effect (does not tell us how and why events are happening. • It does not allow for experimental control to determine how research variables are related to one another. • It does not tell us about the internal psychological events and experiences of subjects, that is their thoughts, believes, fantasies, etc. • These procedures are inefficient when studying behavior occur infrequently or irregularly in the subjects’ everyday life. • One has to wait for a long time before the behavior of interest is emitted. • Problem of observer bias – one is likely to record the positive aspects and omit the negative ones or vice versa. • Sometimes one may not be able to apply all the information to other subjects in general. That is the information may not be generalized to others. 2 Experimental techniques This is a data collection strategy in which one set of variables (independent variable) are manipulated and their influence observed on a second set of variables (dependent variable). It is most appropriate when one wants to establish cause-effect relationships and can also be used to study behavior that occurs irregularly or infrequently in everyday life. The procedure can be repeated or replicated by other investigators. It also provides a test for the reliability of findings. However, it has the following limitations: - • Some behaviors are not open to experimental manipulation. • Some of the findings have limited applications – it tells what subjects can do in restricted laboratory conditions but not in real life. • Artificiality of the experimental research for example sometimes subjects may try to look good and report better results than the case may be. Alternatively they may behave unnaturally or intentionally alter their behavior to sabotage the experiment. 3 Clinical methods Involves a researcher and one individual or subject at a time. It combines observations and careful questioning. The clinical method is flexible. Questioning or the tasks given can be individualized for each person. The major disadvantage is that it may produce conclusions that are dependent on the interviewer ability to ask the right questions. In addition, results obtained may need to be verified by others. To accomplish the goals of developmental research, scientists must discover how and why people change or remain the same over time. To accomplish developmental psychologists use two basic research designs. 4 Cross-sectional research design It compares groups of individuals of different ages on the same measure at the same time. For example, studying moral reasoning of thirty, and sixty-year-olds over a short period of time. Advantages • It is quick and relatively inexpensive. • It gives a good overview of the phenomena under investigation. • Studies a large number of subjects. • Can retest at later date. Disadvantages • It does not tell us the historical antecedents of the behavior. • It does not tell us about behavioral stability. • People from different age groups not only differ in chronological age but also in the time period in which they were born and raised (generational effects). 5 Longitudinal research design: Is a research design in which a group of individuals is repeatedly tested over a period of time. This is meant to overcome the various limitations of cross-sectional designs. For example, testing same adults every ten years to see changes in their moral reasoning. Advantages • Provides a good picture of development within individuals. • Can provide answers about developmental stability of behaviors. • Can determine influences of earlier conditions or experiences. Limitations • Is time and money consuming – very expensive. • Subjects may drop out due to death, illness, migration, wars, etc. • The subjects who complete the study are likely to be more co-operative, motivated, more persistent and more competent – hence may be biased, making it difficult t