Stars and Galaxies 9th Edition by Seeds - Test Bank

Chapter_03_Moon_Phases_and_Eclipses 1 T​he Moon moves slowly against the background of the constellations. True False 2 A​ny location on the Moon is sunlit for three weeks and is in darkness for one week as the Moon rotates. True False 3 I​n most months, there are no eclipses. True False 4 A​s the illuminated part of the Moon grows larger from new to full, it is said to "wane". True False 5 O​ur calendar divides the year into 30­day periods in recognition of the synodic cycle of the Moon. True False 6 W​hen the Moon is totally eclipsed, the Moon is illuminated by some sunlight reflected by Earth's atmosphere. True False 7 W​hen the full Moon passes through Earth's shadow, the eclipse is visible from anywhere on Earth's dark side. True False 8 T​he geometry of a solar eclipse is the same as that of a lunar eclipse. True False 9 A​"larger" Moon on the horizon is an optical illusion. True False 10 T​o see a solar eclipse, you have to be in Earth's shadow. True False 11 T​he angular diameters of the Moon and Sun vary slightly because the orbits of the Moon and Earth are slightly elliptical. True False 12 P​redicting an eclipse is easy because all you have to do is keep track of where the Moon crosses the ecliptic. True False 13 S​ince the Moon is about 0.5 degrees in angular diameter, about how far does it move in 24 hours across the background of the constellations? 0​. 5 d e g r e e s 1​. 0 d e g r e e 2​degrees 9​degrees 1​3 d e g r e e s 14 W​hat is the length of time half of the Moon stays in sunlight per full rotation? 2​9 . 5 3 d a y s 2​7 . 3 d a y s t​w o w e e k s o​n e m o n t h t​wo months 15 W​hat produces the lunar phases? T​he rotation of the Moon T​he revolution of the Moon T​he changing direction of sunlight E​a r t h ' s t i l t e d a x i s r e l a t i v e t o t h e M o o n T​he changing direction of Earth to the Moon 16 W​hat are the two parts of a shadow during an eclipse? t​otal and partial a​pogee and perigee s​idereal and synodic w​axing and waning u​m b r a a n d p e n u m b r a 17 W​hat does a waning crescent moon mean? T​he changing Moon between full moon and third quarter T​he changing Moon between third quarter and new moon T​he changing Moon between first quarter and full moon T​he changing Moon between new moon and first quarter T​he changing Moon between first and third quarters 18 W​hat is a new moon? T​he lunar phase in which the first quarter Moon approaches full moon T​he lunar phase in which Earth's shadow is cast on the Moon T​he lunar phase in which the Moon's shadow is cast on Earth T​he lunar phase in which sunlight illuminates only the far side of the Moon T​he lunar phase in which sunlight illuminates the Earth facing side of the Moon 19 W​hat does a waxing gibbous moon mean? T​he changing Moon between full moon and third quarter T​he changing Moon between third quarter and new moon T​he changing Moon between first quarter and full moon T​he changing Moon between new moon and first quarter T​he changing Moon between first and third quarters 20 W​hat happens every 29.5 days? T​he Moon's Saros cycle T​he Moon's synodic cycle T​he Moon's sidereal cycle T​he Moon's ecliptic season T​he Moon's chance for a partial eclipse 21 W​hat creates a total lunar eclipse? T​he Sun passes completely through Earth's umbra. T​he Moon passes completely through Earth's umbra. T​he Moon passes through some of Earth's penumbra. T​he Earth passes completely through the Moon's umbra. T​he Earth passes through some of the Moon's penumbra. 22 W​hat gives the Moon a coppery glow during a total eclipse? S​unlight refracted through Earth's atmosphere S​unlight reflected from Earth's surface N​ o t a l l o f t h e s u n l i g h t i s b l o c k e d o u t T​he artificial light reflected up from Earth's surface T​he spectral emissions of the gases that make up Earth's atmosphere. 23 I​f the Moon crosses Earth's shadow at the center of the umbra, how long will the entire eclipse last from start to finish? 2​to 3 minutes 7​minutes 1​hour 45 minutes 2​hours 6​hours 24 D​uring a total solar eclipse, what part of the Sun is often visible that we normally cannot see? c​ore C​MEs c​orona p​hotosphere s​olar wind 25 Calculate the angular diameter of the Moon with these known facts: Moon's linear diameter = 3480 km Moon's average distance from Earth = 384,000 km number of arc seconds in 1 radian = 2.06 x 105 3​1 a r c s e c o n d s 1​8 7 a r c s e c o n d s 1​7 5 0 a r c s e c o n d s 1​8 7 0 a r c s e c o n d s 1​9 1 0 a r c s e c o n d s 26 W​hat unit would best describe the linear diameter of a planetary body? a​rc seconds a​rc minutes d​egrees k​ilometers r​adians 27 W​hy can't the Moon always pass through the center of the umbra? T​he Moon's rotation is slightly faster than its revolution around Earth. T​he Moon's orbit is inclined by 5 degrees to the plane of Earth's orbit. T​he Moon's synodic cycle changes a few minutes per cycle. T​he Moon's orbit changes with the seasons. T​he Moon is not in its full moon lunar phase. 28 W​hat happens during a partial lunar eclipse? E​a r t h o n l y p a r t i a l l y e n t e r s t h e p e n u m b r a . T​he Sun only partially enters the umbra. T​he Moon only partially enters the penumbra. E​a r t h o n l y p a r t i a l l y e n t e r s t h e u m b r a . T​he Moon only partially enters the umbra. 29 W​hat happens during a penumbral lunar eclipse? E​a r t h o n l y p a r t i a l l y e n t e r s t h e p e n u m b r a . E​a r t h e n t e r s t h e e n t i r e p e n u m b r a . T​he Moon partially enters the penumbra. T​he Moon only partially enters the umbra. E​a r t h o n l y p a r t i a l l y e n t e r s t h e p e n u m b r a . No, because there are both willing buyers and sellers who are only prevented from trading because of legal constraints. Both parties, buyers and sellers, would be made better­off if trade were allowed, thus more closely approaching Pareto optimality. Buyers would gain kidneys and sellers would gain wealth. 30 A​t what point is the Moon farthest away from Earth? a​pogee p​erigee u​mbra p​enumbra p​rominence Note that in the following diagram that quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied causing a shortage of kidneys when the price is zero. 31 A​t what point is the Moon closest to Earth? a​pogee p​erigee u​mbra p​enumbra p​rominence The country exporting the pollutants would benefit by reducing costs of production overall because firms would only pay the importing country if its charges were less than the cost of domestic disposal. Thus, if costs fell, domestic production would increase as would GDP in the exporting country. The less­developed importing country will gain money from the exchange increasing its GDP, but in order for this to lead to true growth the importing country would need to charge high enough prices to properly store or dispose of the pollutants. 32 B​etween now and 2024, in which year will there be no opportunities for a solar eclipse? 2​015 2​016 2​018 2​021 2​024 Some of the arguments are arguments of exploitation, meddlesome preferences, fair and equal treatment, cultural goods and paternalism, poverty, inequality and the distribution of wealth, and immigration issues. 33 I​f the Moon is too far from Earth during a solar eclipse, the _____ does not reach Earth's surface. u​mbra e​cliptic p​rominence p​enumbra s​olar disk 1) the problem of exploitation 2) meddlesome preferences 3) fair and equal treatment 4) cultural goods and paternalism 5) poverty, inequality, and the distribution of wealth 6) Who counts? Should some count for more? 34 T​he ____ of the Moon and Sun vary slightly because the orbits of the Moon and Earth are slightly elliptical. a​ngular distance l ​i n e a r d i a m e t e r l ​i n e a r d i s t a n c e a​ngular diameter a​ngular momentum Markets are very fair in one aspect. They distribute the gains from trade to whichever parties engage in the trade, regardless of who they are. But there are parties whose value judgments disagree with this standard economic reasoning because, they argue, some individuals end up disadvantaged; for example, the disabled in wheelchairs if public transportation is not wheel­chair accessible. Such parties argue that the government should step in, identify rights, and provide services for the disadvantaged that place them on equal footing with others in society. 35 W​hich part of the Sun is observable during a total solar eclipse? c​ore s​olar disk s​un spots p​hotosphere c​hromosphere Markets are very fair in one aspect. They distribute the gains from trade to whichever parties engage in the trade, regardless of who they are. But there are parties whose value judgments disagree with this standard economic reasoning because, they argue, some individuals end up disadvantaged; for example, the disabled in wheelchairs if public transportation is not wheel­chair accessible. Such parties argue that the government should step in, identify rights, and provide services for the disadvantaged that place them on equal footing with others in society. 36 T​he diamond ring effect is a characteristic of which phenomena? f​u l l m o o n n​e w m o o n l ​u n a r e c l i p s e s​olar eclipse s​olar prominence Student answers will vary depending on the examples they think of. In general however their arguments in favor of exploitation should include a discussion of how the market takes advantage of poor people by putting them in a position where they have to sell certain goods or services that they would otherwise (i.e., if they were not as poor) choose to keep or not sell. The argument in favor of legalizing the market should include a discussion of the need for both parties to be well­informed and free to make their own choices. Then when buyers and sellers decide to trade, it should explain how both parties are made better­off. This is an efficient trade from an economic perspective, and we should respect their rights and choices to trade in ways they believe are beneficial. 37 T​he chromosphere is often marked by eruptions on the solar surface called ____. s​olar flares p​rominences s​olar nodes d​iamond rings c​oronal mass ejections 1) John Rawls's maximin principle: according to the maximin principle, the government should maximize the benefits accruing to the most disadvantaged group in society. The notion of maximizing the minimum led to the phrase maximin. 2) Utilitarianism: When it comes to redistribution, a utilitarian approach tries to determine which people have the greatest need for additional income and implement strategies that bring the greatest total utility to society. 3) Robert Nozick's entitlement theory: Nozick argued that the distribution of income is irrelevant and what matters is whether income differences are justly acquired. 38 D​ue to the high temperatures of the gas, what color do prominences appear as during a solar eclipse? c​opper b​lue p​ink v​iolet t​eal John Rawls rejected the idea that economics must have trade­offs. He advocated economics that deliberately concentrates its efforts on the disadvantaged in society. Societal welfare is seen as a measure of how well the most disadvantaged members of society are doing. Assuming people are risk averse, Rawls explained that if nobody knew what position they held in society they would all want the best for the most disadvantaged in case they ended up being the most disadvantaged themselves. According to Rawls, if societies are ranked, the highest ranked one should be the one where the poorest are best­off. Economists generally prefer to rank societies by average income instead. 39 Sun B​ecause the prominences interact with Earth's magnetic field B​ecause different gases are being combined in the chromosphere Society C ranks lowest because the poorest person is worst­off in this society. Society A ranks highest since the poorest person has the most wealth out of all four societies. W​hy do prominences appear pink during a solar eclipse? B​ecause of the high temperature of the gases B​ecause the photosphere being blocked out B​ecause of the placement of the lunar disk over the 40 H​ow many times does the Moon cross the ecliptic each month? n​one o​nce t​wice t​hree times f​o u r t i m e s Society D ranks lowest since the poorest person, Person 1, has the least amount of income. Society C ranks highest because the poorest person is best off here. 41 E​clipses can occur only when, viewed from Earth, the Sun is near one of the ____ of the Moon's orbit. n​odes p​oints p​hases p​aths e​cliptics Transferring income from the rich to the poor requires taxing the rich. Taxes create deadweight losses and reduce society's overall output. Transferring money to poor people may reduce their incentive to acquire human capital and seek market employment, thus reducing their lifetime income. The assumptions of utilitarianism are strong. Economists are not comfortable comparing marginal utilities across people. There is no way to know whether taking a dollar from a rich person and giving it to poor person increases society's overall utility; it's possible that the rich person values the dollar more than a poor person. 42 A​solar eclipse can only occur when the Moon is ____ f​ull n​ew w​aning w​axing r​ising Utilitarians advocate the reallocation of some resources from the rich to the poor. Since Robin Hood robbed from the rich to give to the poor, it can be assumed that he was utilitarian to some extent. However, it is important to note that utilitarians are not always trying to make the poor as rich as possible. They only advocate the reallocation of resources to the point where society maximizes its total utility. We have no way of measuring how Robin Hood's actions affected total utility. Prince John may well have valued his losses more than the peasants valued their gains. 43 A​lunar eclipse can only occur when the Moon is ____ f​ull n​ew w​axing w​aning r​ising No, it is important to note that utilitarians are not always trying to make the poor as rich as possible. They only advocate the reallocation of resources to the point where society maximizes its total utility. Therefore if total overall utility will fall when wealth is relocated from the rich to the poor, the utilitarians will not advocate the reallocation of wealth. 44 W​hat astronomical period takes 18 years 11 1/3 days to complete? s​ynodic cycle l ​u n a r p h a s e c y c l e e​clipse season s​idereal period S​ a r o s c y c l e Robert Nozick's entitlement theory is most consistent with the principles of individual liberty. Indeed, it is referred to as the libertarian theory of justice. Nozick's theory suggests that market outcomes are optimal as long as the voluntary transactions do not infringe upon the rights of others. Whereas the other two theories, maximin and utilitarianism, both advocate transferring resources from the rich to the poor in an effort to make society better off, Nozick's entitlement theory does not. 45 H​ow many Saros cycles does it take for the same eclipse to occur at about the same location on Earth? o​n e c y c l e t​hree cycles 1​8 c y c l e s 2​2 c y c l e s 5​4 c y c l e s a. From a utilitarian point of view, the new allocation is just because society's satisfaction went up overall. b. From a Rawlsian point of view, the new allocation may be unjust because the poor person's money balances went down. If everyone's income level remained the same except the author's (which increased), then there is a greater disparity, but the poor person's income didn't change so the society's rank on the basis of average income also remains unchanged. c. From Nozick's standpoint, the allocation is just because everyone participated in this trade willingly and no rights were infringed upon in arriving at this final allocation. 46 W​hat is the safest way or method to observe a solar eclipse? u​s i n g a t e l e s c o p e w​earing sunglasses b​y observing with your naked eyes t​hrough a pinhole projection t​hrough a UV filter held up to the sky Immigrants contribute to economic growth by providing labor for the production process, earning incomes that count towards GDP, and spending part of that income domestically. Their remittances also aid economic growth in their home countries. 47 A​(n) _______________ can occur only at a full Moon if the Moon's path carries it through the shadow of Earth. Answer: lunar eclipse Immigrants cost us our jobs, we should make sure that every American that wants a job has one. Immigrants take away incomes that American citizens could have earned; we should care for our own citizens first. We need to erect stronger barriers (legal and otherwise) to keep immigration to a minimum, especially in these recessionary times. 48 D​uring the _______________ phase, sunlight illuminates the far side of the Moon, and the side you see is in darkness. Answer: new moon When economists evaluate a public policy, they tend to count the benefits and costs to all individuals equally regardless of where they live. On the other hand, national governments usually weight the preferences of their citizens more heavily, usually much more heavily, than they do the preferences of foreigners. For example, regarding the U.S. immigration policy, economists would hold the view that foreign immigration into the United States will look especially beneficial if the gains to foreigners are counted as much as the gains to nationals are counted. However, politicians are more concerned with the welfare of their constituents and care less about the foreign citizens. 49 A​(n) _______________ is the changing phase the week between first quarter and full moon. Answer: waxing gibbous Economics is very fair in one aspect. It models markets and distributes the gains from trade to whichever parties engage in the trade, regardless of who they are. Economics does not differentiate regarding who the demands stem from—it treats all demands equally regardless of who they come from. A free market will produce whatever consumers want and economists respect the choices that people make as long as they impose no external costs on nonmarket participants. To that extent economics is an ethical discipline respecting people's preferences and their trade behavior. 50 T​he sidereal period is _______________ days long, the time it takes the Moon to circle the sky once and return to the same position relative to the stars. Answer: 27.3 [The best answer is the “Takeaway” from the text, as this question is a summary­styled short answer that addresses the entire chapter.] “Economics stresses the core idea of gains from trade. Yet in many circumstances not everyone approves of gains from trade, mostly for ethical reasons. Not everyone thinks that kidneys should be bought and sold and not everyone thinks that pollution should be exported to poor countries. Intuitions about fairness, equitable treatment, distribution, and other matters often clash with the economic notion of increasing gains from trade.” 51 T​otal lunar eclipses tend to be darkest when the Moon's orbit carries it through the center of the _______________. Answer: umbra 52 I​f the Moon passes only partially into the umbra, we witness a(n) _______________. Answer: partial lunar eclipse 53 A​(n) _______________ occurs when the Moon moves between Earth and the Sun. Answer: solar eclipse 54 T​he _______________ formula expresses the relationship of the linear (true) diameter, the angular (apparent) diameter, and the distance, of any object. Answer: small­angle Answer: small angle 55 Because the _______________ of the Moon and the Sun vary slightly, the disk of the Moon is sometimes too small to cover the disk of the Sun.​ Answer: angular diameter 56 T​he safest and simplest way to observe the partial phases of a solar eclipse is to use _______________ projection. Answer: pinhole 57 E​clipses can occur only when, viewed from Earth, the Sun is near one of the _______________. of the Moon's orbit. Answer: nodes 58 A​fter one _______________. of 18 years 11 1/3 days, the pattern of eclipses repeats. Answer: Saros cycle 59 Find the matching definition to the vocabulary term. totality b. waxes c. apogee d. sidereal period e. umbra f. perigee g. synodic period h. penumbra i. wanes j. nodes a. T​he illuminated portion of the Moon increases Answer: b 60 Find the matching definition to the vocabulary term. totality b. waxes c. apogee d. sidereal period e. umbra f. perigee g. synodic period h. penumbra i. wanes j. nodes T​he farthest point in the Moon's orbit Answer: c a. 61 Find the matching definition to the vocabulary term. totality b. waxes c. apogee d. sidereal period e. umbra f. perigee g. synodic period h. penumbra i. wanes j. nodes a. T​he two points at which the Moon's orbit crosses the ecliptic Answer: j 62 Find the matching definition to the vocabulary term. totality b. waxes f. perigee g. synodic period a. c. apogee h. penumbra d. sidereal period i. wanes e. umbra j. nodes A​complete cycle of lunar phases of 29.53 days Answer: g 63 Find the matching definition to the vocabulary term. totality b. waxes c. apogee d. sidereal period e. umbra A​completely eclipsed moon Answer: a f. perigee g. synodic period h. penumbra i. wanes j. nodes a. 64 Find the matching definition to the vocabulary term. totality b. waxes c. apogee d. sidereal period f. perigee g. synodic period h. penumbra i. wanes a. e. umbra j. nodes T​he illuminated portion of the Moon decreases Answer: i 65 Find the matching definition to the vocabulary term. totality b. waxes c. apogee d. sidereal period e. umbra T​he region of total shadow Answer: e f. perigee g. synodic period h. penumbra i. wanes j. nodes a. 66 Find the matching definition to the vocabulary term. totality b. waxes c. apogee d. sidereal period e. umbra f. perigee g. synodic period h. penumbra i. wanes j. nodes a. T​he orbital period with respect to the stars of about 27 days Answer: d 67 Find the matching definition to the vocabulary term. totality b. waxes c. apogee d. sidereal period e. umbra f. perigee g. synodic period h. penumbra i. wanes j. nodes a. T​he region of partial shadow where sunlight is dimmed Answer: h 68 Find the matching definition to the vocabulary term. totality f. b. waxes g. c. apogee h. d. sidereal period i. e. umbra j. T​he closest point in the Moon's orbit Answer: f perigee synodic period penumbra wanes nodes a. 69 Answer: E​xplain why "the dark side of the Moon" is an incorrect statement. As the Moon orbits Earth, it rotates to keep the same side facing Earth, so we see the same features of the Moon from Earth, and never see the far side of the Moon. That does not mean, however, that the far side is always in the dark. All parts of the Moon experience day and night in a month­long cycle. Any location on the Moon is sunlit for two weeks and is in darkness for two weeks as the Moon rotates. 70 W​hy does the Moon appear reddish during a total lunar eclipse and not go completely dark? Answer: D​uring a total lunar eclipse, you would see Earth's atmosphere lit from behind by the sun. The red glow from this ring of sunsets and sunrises around the circumference of Earth shines into the umbra of Earth's shadow, making the umbra not completely dark. That glow illuminates the moon during totality and makes it glow coppery red. 71 Answer: W​hat are the two conditions for an eclipse? The Sun must be near one of the two nodes of the Moon's orbit, and the Moon must pass near either the same node (solar eclipse) or the other node (lunar eclipse). 72 Answer: W​hat is an eclipse season? An eclipse can occur only in a period called an eclipse season, during which the Sun is close to a node in the Moon's orbit. For solar eclipses, an eclipse season is about 32 days long. Any new moon during this period will produce a solar eclipse. For lunar eclipses, the eclipse season is a bit shorter, about 22 days. Any full moon in this period will encounter Earth's shadow and be eclipsed. 73 Answer: W​hy can't a lunar eclipse happen at every full moon? Most full moons pass too far north or too far south of the ecliptic and miss the umbra of Earth's shadow, only when the full moon passes at a node can it be eclipsed. 74 Answer: D​escribe all that you would see during a total eclipse of the Sun. During a totally eclipsed Sun, the Moon's disk moves in from the right towards the left, covering the photosphere of the Sun. Sunlight begins to dim as more of the sun's disk is covered. During totality, the corona is visible. The glowing pale white light is faint enough that you can temporarily look safely at the Sun directly. Also visible is the chromosphere often marked by prominences, which glow pink. 75 I​f eclipses occur in repeatable patterns, then explain why an eclipse is not visible from the same place on Earth after one Saros cycle. Answer: Although the eclipse geometry repeats almost exactly, it is not visible from the same place on Earth. The Saros cycle is a third of a day longer than 18 years 11 days. When the eclipse happens again, Earth will have rotated a third of a turn farther east, and the eclipse will occur a third of the way westward around Earth. That means that after three Saros cycles (period of 54 years plus 34 days) the same eclipse occurs in about the same part of Earth. 76 H​ow would you explain to your friend, who knows nothing about astronomy, the way to predict the next eclipse of the Sun? Answer: There are two conditions for an eclipse occur: The Sun must be near one of the two nodes of the Moon's orbit, and the Moon must pass near either the same node (solar eclipse) or the other node (lunar eclipse). This means, of course, that solar eclipses can occur only when the Moon is new, and lunar eclipses can occur only when the Moon is full. For solar eclipses, an eclipse season is about 32 days long. Any new moon during this period will produce a solar eclipse. For lunar eclipses, the eclipse season is a bit shorter, about 22 days. Any full moon in this period will encounter Earth's shadow and be eclipsed. This makes eclipse prediction easy. All you have to do is keep track of where the Moon crosses the ecliptic (where the nodes of its orbit are). Then, when the Sun approaches either of the nodes you can warn everyone that eclipses are possible Eclipses follow a pattern. Once you have observed a few eclipses from a given location, you would see that the orbit of the Moon precess like a hubcap spinning on the ground. This precession makes the line of nodes seem to rotate around the sky, which would occur every 18.6 years. Consequently, the Sun does not need a full year to go from a node all the way around the ecliptic and appear back at the same node. Because the node is moving westward to meet the Sun, you can predict next year's eclipse seasons by subtracting 19 days. New moons and full moons near those dates are candidates for eclipses. 77 W​hat are three common misconceptions about the Moon and how would you provide the correct explanation for those misconceptions? Answer: Misconception: the "dark side of the Moon" is always dark. There is no permanently dark side. There is a far side. The Moon rotates at the same rate it revolves around Earth, so one side will illuminate light for two weeks, the other side will be dark for two weeks, and repeat. Misconception: shouldn't see the Moon during daylight hours. The gibbous (not quite full) Moon is often visible during the daytime hours. Quarter moons, and especially crescent moons, can also be visible in the daytime sky, but they are harder to see when the Sun is above the horizon and the sky is bright. Misconception: The full Moon causes lunatic behavior. There are scientific studies proving that a person's behavior is not linked to the lunar phases. Misconception: the Moon is larger when on the horizon. It is an optical illusion. Try viewing it from a different angle. Chapter_01_Here_and_Now 1 T​he most widely accepted system of measurement is the metric system. True False 2 E​arth is approximately 13,000 km in diameter. True False 3 A​convenient method to write very large numbers is to use scientific notation. True False 4 T​he Universe consists of the Sun, its family of planets, and some smaller bodies such as moons, asteroids, and comets. True False 5 J​u p i t e r , S a t u r n , U r a n u s a n d N e p t u n e a r e o n l y l o c a t e d a t a d i s t a n c e o f 1 A U or less from the Sun. True False 6 U​ranus is one of a group of dwarf planets and other small objects that have been discovered circling the Sun beyond Neptune. True False 7 O​ur Solar System formed 14 billion years ago with the Big Bang. True False 8 H​umanity is very new to the Universe. True False 9 S​cientists try to form hypotheses that explain how nature works. True False 10 T​he scientific method is a simple, mechanical way of grinding facts into understanding. True False 11 Y​ou are analyzing driveway lengths within your neighborhood and surrounding neighborhoods, and your data is to be presented to the city council. Which would be the most appropriate unit of measurement? m​iles k​ilometers m​eters i​nches f​e e t m i l l i m e t e r s Voters have an incentive to be ignorant. When acquiring information about candidates, the benefits of the information may be less than the costs of its acquisition, which means it is rational to be ignorant. An informed voter is no more likely to change an election outcome than an uninformed voter. Furthermore, casting a vote is likely to have little effect on whether a particular candidate wins, so a voter may even choose not to vote. 12 Y​ou need to drive to a research site to collect some samples. The site is 250 miles away. What is the approximate distance in kilometers? 2​5 0 k m 1​0 6 k m 4​0 0 k m 5​0 0 k m 1​5 6 k m The process of understanding the electoral system, the candidates' platforms, and critically assessing the candidates' policies ends up being too costly for the voter, especially in terms of the time requirements. Moreover, voters may think that individual votes do not count. 13 J​u p i t e r i s l o c a t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 . 2 A U a w a y f r o m t h e S u n . W h a t i s t h e distance in kilometers? 3​. 7 x 1 0 7 k m 5​. 2 x 1 0 8 k m 1​. 4 x 1 0 9 k m 7​. 8 x 1 0 8 k m 8​. 0 x 1 0 8 k m Because the costs are diffused among a very large number of taxpayers, and so the cost of opposing the policy becomes prohibitive for a single individual. Thus they remain rationally ignorant. 14 W​hat is Earth's distance from the Sun? 0​. 3 9 A U 0​. 7 2 A U 1​. 0 A U 1​. 5 A U 2​. 8 A U No, rational ignorance and irrationality are not the same. To be irrational is to not act in your own self­ interest. To be rationally ignorant implies that you are acting rationally by being uninformed. In this case, the costs of being informed exceed the benefits of becoming informed. 15 W​hich best represents 5,362,000,000 kilometers in scientific notation? 5​. 4 x 1 0 9 m 5​x 1010 km 5​3 . 6 x 1 0 6 k m 5​. 3 6 2 x 1 0 9 m i 5​. 3 6 2 x 1 0 9 k m The incentives for voters to be informed are low because the payoff of being informed is low. That is, studying position papers, examining voting histories, and listening to political speeches is sometimes entertaining but it doesn't offer much concrete return. Even when studying changes your vote, your vote is very unlikely to change the outcome of the election. Accordingly, studying politics doesn't pay because the outcome of any election is mostly determined by what other people do, not by what you do. 16 U​ranus is approximately 3 x 109 km away from the Sun. What is the distance in astronomical units? 1​AU 2​AU 1​0 A U 1​5 A U 2​0 A U 1. If voters are not well informed, then it is difficult for them to make informed choices. 2. Voters who are rationally ignorant will often make decisions for irrational reasons. 3. Finally, rational ignorance matters because not everyone is rationally ignorant. 17 A​pproximately how long does it take light to reach the Earth from the Sun? 1​min 8​min 1​ly 8​ly 1​AU Consider the example of the sugar quota given in the textbook. When politicians are aware that the cost of a policy such as a quota translates into a minimal cost per consumer, they can enact such a policy and get support from sugar producers in return. The textbook has ample evidence of the contributions made by sugar producers to various politicians. 18 W​hich is the correct order of the planets, moving from closest to the Sun to farthest from the Sun? M​ercury, Venus, Earth, Saturn, Mars, Jupiter, Neptune, Uranus M​ercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune V​enus, Mercury, Mars, Earth, Saturn, Jupiter, Neptune, Uranus M​ars, Venus, Earth, Mercury, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune M​ercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus Although the sugar quota costs consumers over a billion dollars, these costs are spread over millions of consumers and thus each consumer bears only a small cost. The benefit to protesting against the quota does not outweigh the cost of such a protest (in terms of time, money, and effort) so many consumers are not aware that the quota exists. 19 W​hat did the International Astronomical Union classify Pluto as in 2006? a​steroid c​omet p​lanet d​warf planet m​eteor Consumers, or people in general, will engage in an activity if there is a benefit to them that outweighs the cost of engaging in that activity. A voter may not think his or her vote is particularly important, and so he or she may not bother to acquire the knowledge of the voting system or the agendas of the candidates. Similarly a taxpayer will not go into the effort of fighting against a sugar quota because the cost to him or her of the protest (in terms of time, money, and effort) will outweigh the benefit. Moreover, to topple the sugar quota would require the concerted efforts of not just one, but millions of taxpayers. 20 W​hat unit of measurement is used to describe extraordinary large distances, such as the distance of other stars from our own? A​U m​in l​y k​m m​i Chances are that you will remain rationally ignorant about the candidates and their platforms, because you are graduating in a short time and the policies enacted by the new student representatives will not have any effect on you. 21 Y​ou discover a new star that is 352,800 AU away. What is the distance in light years? 5​. 6 l y 2​. 3 l y 6​3 l y 3​. 5 3 l y 2​. 2 2 x 1 0 2 l y If the benefits of a piece of proposed legislation are highly concentrated among a small number of people, they will likely lobby the government for the passage of the legislation. However, if the costs of the legislation are diffused over millions of people, many people will not find it worthwhile to get informed and oppose it, especially if the per person costs of the legislation are small. The potential opposition remains silent or rationally ignorant, which allows members of the special interest group to get their way with the politicians. Unfortunately, the benefits to the special interest group may be smaller than the social costs, creating inefficiency and making the economy worse off. 22 W​hat is the Sun made up of? r​ock m​etal i​ce h​o t g a s w​ater Politicians add special interest provisions that provide tax credits and deductions for various industries, for example manufacturing industries like oil and gas drilling as well as mining and timber. 23 T​he star Wolf 359 is 7.7 light years away. What is that distance in kilometers? 7​. 7 x 1 0 8 k m 1​4 x 1 0 1 3 k m 0​. 7 8 x 1 0 8 k m 7​. 2 8 x 1 0 1 3 k m 7​. 2 8 x 1 0 1 2 k m Diffused costs and concentrated benefits is the key formula for political success. For instance, the costs of the sugar quota are diffused over millions of consumers, so no consumer has much of an incentive to oppose the quota. But the benefits of the quota are concentrated on a handful of producers; they have strong incentives to support the quota. So the sugar quota is a winning policy for politicians. 24 Figure 1­11 (for the following questions) W​hat does the above image represent? U​niverse g​alaxy p​lanet S​olar System e​xtrasolar planet In the United States political cycles correspond to business cycles. If the economy is doing well, voters tend to vote for the incumbent. If the economy is not doing well, they tend to vote for the opposing party. This formula seems to work regardless of the candidates' personalities and political agendas. ​ 25 Figure 1­11 (for the following questions) I​n Figure 1, what is the pointer indicating? e​xtrasolar planet S​olar System s​piral arm d​warf planets g​alaxy We know that voters respond to economic conditions; however, we also know that they are myopic in that they tend to vote based on current economic conditions, not past or future economic conditions. Therefore, politicians tend to focus on what is close at hand, namely economic conditions in the election year. Politicians who want to be reelected will do whatever they can to increase household income in the current year, many times at the expense of good economic policies for future time periods. ​ 26 W​hich of these planets is approximately the same size as Earth? V​enus M​ars S​aturn M​ercury P​luto The median voter theorem says that voters tend to vote for candidates closest to their own preferences. Candidates with extreme views tend to be positioned at either end of the political spectrum, and hence positioned far away from the views of the median voter. 27 W​hich of these planets is just 0.39 AU from the Sun? J​upiter M​ars E​arth V​enus M​ercury The median voter theorem is constructed under the assumptions that 1) voters will vote for the policy that is closest to their ideal preference and 2) there is just one major dimension over which voting takes place. In reality neither of these may hold, in which case the median voter theorem may not apply. 28 S​ince Mars is 1.5 AU from the Sun, how long would it take for sunlight to reach the surface of Mars? 4​min 8​min 1​2 m i n 1​hr 4​hr Greater wealth means that people demand more than just the satisfaction of basic wants. They begin to desire more cerebral satisfaction (consider Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs) and thus they desire to participate in the voting process. This increase in GDP per capita thus leads to greater democracy. On other hand, greater democracy leads to the establishment of more freely functioning markets where producers can produce goods in a more competitive manner. This leads to higher GDP and thus higher GDP per capita. 29 T​he Big Bang is a theory describing the ____. b​i r t h o f o u r S o l a r S y s t e m s​tart of civilization on Earth b​eginning of planet formation b​eginning of the Universe m​assive extinction of dinosaurs A lack of economic power, especially if coupled with inflation can lead to such starvation. Recall the example of Bangladesh from the textbook, where poor farmers who could not work because their land was flooded, lost their incomes, and this coupled with inflation caused them to starve even when sufficient food to feed them was present in the country. In addition, a lack of political power meant that the elites then running Bangladesh were not compelled to avert the famine. 30 W​hen did life first appear on Earth? 1​4 b i l l i o n y e a r s a g o 4​0 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o 4​. 6 b i l l i o n y e a r s a g o 6​5 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o 3​. 4 b i l l i o n y e a r s a g o 31 W​hat process do scientists use to determine how nature works? T​he observational method T​he scientific method T​he brainstorming method T​he laboratory method T​he naturalistic method 32 W​hat is the very first step of the scientific method? D​esign an experiment. F​orm a hypothesis. A​nalyze results. G​enerate a conclusion. P​erform an experiment. 33 A​stronomers use _______________ to express distance from the Sun. Answer: astronomical units Answer: AU 34 T​he celestial object _______________ is just one of many small objects that orbit the Sun beyond Neptune. Answer: Pluto 35 A​s Earth _______________ on its axis, it produces the cycle of day and night. Answer: rotates 36 T​he Universe is too big to discuss distance without using _______________. Answer: scientific notation 37 I​t is a common misconception that a light­year is a unit of _______________. Answer: time 38 T​he size of a star's image in a photo tells you how _______________ the star appears. Answer: bright 39 O​ur Solar System resides in the _______________ Galaxy. Answer: Milky Way 40 T​h e _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ c o n t a i n s a l l o f t h e g a l a x i e s , s o l a r s y s t e m s , s t a r s , a n d planets. Answer: Universe 41 A​stronomers refer to the beginning of the Universe as the _______________. Answer: big bang 42 T​he formation of our _______________ occurred about 4.6 billion years ago. Answer: Solar System 43 Match the astronomical object to its definition or example. galaxy b. planet c. extrasolar planet d. solar system e. dwarf planet f. star a. c​onsists of a star with orbiting planets Answer: d 44 Match the astronomical object to its definition or example. galaxy b. planet c. extrasolar planet d. solar system e. dwarf planet f. star a. s​p h e r i c a l , r o c k y , o r g a s e o u s b o d i e s t h a t o r b i t a s t a r Answer: b 45 Match the astronomical object to its definition or example. galaxy b. planet c. extrasolar planet d. solar system e. dwarf planet f. star a. a​s m a l l o b j e c t t h a t o r b i t s t h e S u n b e y o n d N e p t u n e Answer: e 46 Match the astronomical object to its definition or example. galaxy b. planet c. extrasolar planet d. solar system e. dwarf planet f. star a. p​lanets orbiting stars beyond our own solar system Answer: c 47 Match the astronomical object to its definition or example. galaxy b. planet c. extrasolar planet d. solar system e. dwarf planet f. star a. a​g r e a t c l o u d o f s t a r s , g a s , a n d d u s t h e l d t o g e t h e r b y t h e c o m b i n e d g r a v i t y o f all of its matter Answer: a 48 Match the astronomical object to its definition or example. galaxy d. solar system b. planet e. dwarf planet a. c. extrasolar planet f. star a​self­luminous ball of hot gas Answer: f 49 U​sing the example of a football field, indicate the beginning of the Universe, the beginning of our Solar System and the beginning of civilization as we know it along the field in whatever terminology you are familiar with. Answer: The big bang is at the first goal line, The 33 yard line (past the 50 yard line) is the start of solar system. Civilization is represented at 0.0026 inches away from opposite goal line. 50 W​hat is the scientific method? Answer: The scientific method is a process of testing and refining ideas to better describe how nature works. It is a combination of making observations, forming a hypothesis, testing evidences, analyzing information, finding relationships, and creating new ideas. 51 W​hat are the planets of our Solar System in order from closest to farthest from the Sun? Answer: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune 52 E​xplain the difference between a galaxy and a solar system. Answer: The Solar System is your local neighborhood, that is, the Sun (a star) and its planets, one planetary system. The Milky Way Galaxy contains our Solar System plus billions of other planetary systems. 53 86 E​xplainhowthescientificnotationof4.52x10 isthesameas452x10. Answer: The decimal point has already been moved over two places for 452 x 106, therefore 4.52 x 108 = 452 x 106 = 452,000,000. 54 Answer: W​hy do we study astronomy? Astronomy is important to you because it will tell you what you are. As you study astronomy, you will learn how you fit into the history of the Universe. You will learn that the atoms in your body had their birth in the big bang when the Universe began. Those atoms have been cooked and remade inside generations of stars, and now, after more than 10 billion years, they are inside you. You can use astronomy as a case study in science. 55 Answer: W​hy do scientists use the scientific method? It is an ingrained way of thinking about and understanding nature for scientists. Scientists try to form hypotheses that explain how nature works. If a hypothesis is contradicted by evidence from experiments or observations, it must be revised or discarded. If a hypothesis is confirmed, it must be tested further. A scientist needs insight and ingenuity to form and test a good hypothesis. Scientists use the scientific method almost automatically, forming, testing, revising, and discarding hypotheses almost minute by minute as they discuss a new idea. Sometimes, however, a scientist will spend years studying a single promising hypothesis. The so­ called scientific method is a way of thinking and a way of knowing about nature. 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