Part 1: Foundations
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. If we think of the three basic kinds of research as ordered or cumulative, which of the following
reflects the correct order?
a. Causal, Descriptive, Relational
b. Descriptive, Causal, Relational
c. Descriptive, Relational, Causal
d. All three are equivalent and not cumulative
ANS: C
Rationale: The three kinds of studies can be considered cumulative in that a relational study
assumes that you can first describe (by measuring or observing) each of the variables you are
trying to relate. A causal study assumes that you can describe both the cause and effect variables
and that you can show that they are related to each other. Causal studies are probably the most
demanding of the three types of studies to perform.
PTS: 1 REF: 1-1a
2. Which is the most accurate statement about a correlational relationship?
a. There is always a dependent variable and an independent variable in a correlational
relationship
b. There is always a cause and an effect in a correlational relationship.
c. A causal relationship and a correlational relationship are the same thing.
d. A correlational relationship means that two variables are observed to perform in a
synchronized manner.
ANS: D
, Rationale: This item addresses the important distinction between correlation and causality. It also
challenges the test taker to consider times when it would not be possible or sensible to identify
one variable as an independent variable and the other as the dependent variable.
PTS: 1 REF: 1-1c
3. What sort of relationship is portrayed in the figure below?
a. No relationship
b. Positive relationship
c. Negative relationship
d. Curvilinear relationship
ANS: A
Rationale: This figure shows the classic no relationship pattern in that knowing the value of any
observation on one variable provides no information about the value of the other variable. We can
call them “independent” of one another. Note that sometimes students have trouble distinguishing
independent and dependent variables so some care should be taken when explaining the concept
of statistical independence in the two variable case (as in the figure).
PTS: 1 REF: 1-1c
4. If a variable is defined so that the respondent is not able to assign two attributes simultaneously,
the variable is considered:
a. to be a dependent variable
, b. to be an independent variable
c. to have the property of being mutually exclusive attributes or values
d. to be a correlated variable
ANS: C
Rationale: This is a very desirable property of a variable because error can creep into
measurement if attributes are poorly defined, incomplete or overlapping. For example the
variable “employment status” would be incomplete if the only attributes were employed or
unemployed. In that case, how would someone who was retired or employed part time respond?
PTS: 1 REF: 1-1d
5. A two-tailed hypothesis is one that:
a. Specifies that the study outcome is likely to be no effect
b. States the alternative hypothesis as nondirectional (difference could be positive or
negative)
c. Assumes your variables are not normally distributed
d. Includes two dependent variables
ANS: B
Rationale: The “tails” refer to the ends of the distribution, which reflect the highest and lowest
values of the variable. This means that a two-tailed hypothesis merely suggests a difference (vs.
the null or no-difference hypothesis), but not the direction of the difference or relationship.
PTS: 1 REF: 1-1e
6. Which of the following is a statement of a null hypothesis?
a. As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be no significant difference in
Depression.
b. As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be a significant decrease in
, Depression.
c. As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be no Depression in the treated
group.
d. As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be a significant increase or a
significant decrease in Depression.
ANS: A
Rationale: The key feature of the null hypothesis is the statement of equivalence between groups;
that is, a statement of no relationship between variables. Choice A is clearly the only statement
that expresses this prediction. However, some students may be tempted to choose C if they do not
understand the concept of no difference; and some may be tempted to choose D if they interpret
null to mean no direction of difference predicted. Choice B would only make sense if the question
was not read carefully.
PTS: 1 REF: 1-1e
7. Bottom-up reasoning is formally known as:
a. Qualitative reasoning
b. Inductive reasoning
c. Deductive reasoning
d. Constructive reasoning
ANS: B
Rationale: In inductive reasoning, you begin with specific observations and measures, begin
detecting patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that you can explore, and
finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.
PTS: 1 REF: 1-2b
8. Which of the following statements is the most accurate reflection of a post-positivist view of
science?
a. Common sense reasoning and scientific reasoning are essentially the same process
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. If we think of the three basic kinds of research as ordered or cumulative, which of the following
reflects the correct order?
a. Causal, Descriptive, Relational
b. Descriptive, Causal, Relational
c. Descriptive, Relational, Causal
d. All three are equivalent and not cumulative
ANS: C
Rationale: The three kinds of studies can be considered cumulative in that a relational study
assumes that you can first describe (by measuring or observing) each of the variables you are
trying to relate. A causal study assumes that you can describe both the cause and effect variables
and that you can show that they are related to each other. Causal studies are probably the most
demanding of the three types of studies to perform.
PTS: 1 REF: 1-1a
2. Which is the most accurate statement about a correlational relationship?
a. There is always a dependent variable and an independent variable in a correlational
relationship
b. There is always a cause and an effect in a correlational relationship.
c. A causal relationship and a correlational relationship are the same thing.
d. A correlational relationship means that two variables are observed to perform in a
synchronized manner.
ANS: D
, Rationale: This item addresses the important distinction between correlation and causality. It also
challenges the test taker to consider times when it would not be possible or sensible to identify
one variable as an independent variable and the other as the dependent variable.
PTS: 1 REF: 1-1c
3. What sort of relationship is portrayed in the figure below?
a. No relationship
b. Positive relationship
c. Negative relationship
d. Curvilinear relationship
ANS: A
Rationale: This figure shows the classic no relationship pattern in that knowing the value of any
observation on one variable provides no information about the value of the other variable. We can
call them “independent” of one another. Note that sometimes students have trouble distinguishing
independent and dependent variables so some care should be taken when explaining the concept
of statistical independence in the two variable case (as in the figure).
PTS: 1 REF: 1-1c
4. If a variable is defined so that the respondent is not able to assign two attributes simultaneously,
the variable is considered:
a. to be a dependent variable
, b. to be an independent variable
c. to have the property of being mutually exclusive attributes or values
d. to be a correlated variable
ANS: C
Rationale: This is a very desirable property of a variable because error can creep into
measurement if attributes are poorly defined, incomplete or overlapping. For example the
variable “employment status” would be incomplete if the only attributes were employed or
unemployed. In that case, how would someone who was retired or employed part time respond?
PTS: 1 REF: 1-1d
5. A two-tailed hypothesis is one that:
a. Specifies that the study outcome is likely to be no effect
b. States the alternative hypothesis as nondirectional (difference could be positive or
negative)
c. Assumes your variables are not normally distributed
d. Includes two dependent variables
ANS: B
Rationale: The “tails” refer to the ends of the distribution, which reflect the highest and lowest
values of the variable. This means that a two-tailed hypothesis merely suggests a difference (vs.
the null or no-difference hypothesis), but not the direction of the difference or relationship.
PTS: 1 REF: 1-1e
6. Which of the following is a statement of a null hypothesis?
a. As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be no significant difference in
Depression.
b. As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be a significant decrease in
, Depression.
c. As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be no Depression in the treated
group.
d. As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be a significant increase or a
significant decrease in Depression.
ANS: A
Rationale: The key feature of the null hypothesis is the statement of equivalence between groups;
that is, a statement of no relationship between variables. Choice A is clearly the only statement
that expresses this prediction. However, some students may be tempted to choose C if they do not
understand the concept of no difference; and some may be tempted to choose D if they interpret
null to mean no direction of difference predicted. Choice B would only make sense if the question
was not read carefully.
PTS: 1 REF: 1-1e
7. Bottom-up reasoning is formally known as:
a. Qualitative reasoning
b. Inductive reasoning
c. Deductive reasoning
d. Constructive reasoning
ANS: B
Rationale: In inductive reasoning, you begin with specific observations and measures, begin
detecting patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that you can explore, and
finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.
PTS: 1 REF: 1-2b
8. Which of the following statements is the most accurate reflection of a post-positivist view of
science?
a. Common sense reasoning and scientific reasoning are essentially the same process
