Order of answering questions
(AC1.2, AC3.1, AC3.2, AC1.1, AC2.4, AC1.3, AC1.4, AC2.5, AC2.1, AC2.2, AC2.3)
AC1.1- Evaluate The Effectiveness Of The Roles Of Personnel Involved In Criminal Investigations (10
marks - 45 mins) Link to brief
police officers
• Police officers are trained personnel whose role is to maintain law and order, protect members of public and reducing the
fear of crime. They are the first people who get called to a crime scene and are trained to preserve life and evidence.
• Due to the nature and responsibilities of the police, they do have strengths, such as there are specialist units within the
police, such as the Crime Investigation Department (CID) who specialises in serious crimes to ensure they are dealt with
appropriately.
• Additional teams include firearms and underwater, allowing them to deal with all crime scenes. All departments also receive
specialist training, making them more efficient in dealing with crime scenes, and enduring evidence is not contaminated so
they have a bigger chance at catching the perpetrator. Also, due to the 24-hour availability of the police, it is assured that a
team will always respond to a crime scene as quickly as possible, making the possibility of keeping it secure higher.
Depending on the location of a crime scene, the response time is often very quick, meaning there is less chance of
contamination, making the effectiveness higher.
• However, a limitation of police officers is institutionalised sexism and racism. Many police officers get socialised through
their work into a canteen culture where negative attitude regarding race, gender and sexuality etc. are normalised and not
discouraged. This can lead to police officers being accepting of these views and having preconceived bias against people
involved in investigations. The findings of the 1999 Macpherson report, commissioned after the 1993 murder of Stephen
Lawrence, found that the police were institutionally racist and do not treat investigations involving black people with
adequate response, support or fairness.
• This can be shown with how black people are dis-proportionally affected by stop and searches in comparison to their white
counterparts in statistics collected and published by the Home Office and ONS: there were 6 stop and searches for every
1,000 White people, compared with 54 for every 1,000 Black people in 2021.
• An example of this is the case of Child Q who was a 15-year-old black female secondary school student who was strip
searched by 4 MET police without her parents/guardian’s knowledge or consent, after a teacher accused her of smelling of
weed. Child Q was racially profiled and adultified. Davis and Marsh 2020 define adultification as when the “notions of
innocence and vulnerability are not afforded to certain children”. This typically affects Black children as they are seen as
adult-like and as a result, they are more likely to be viewed as a threat or a risk, rather than a child in need of support.
Scene Of Crime Officers SOCO
• Scene of crime officers, also known as SOCOs, accurately document and process the crime scene, gather evidence, and pass
it on to the necessary forensic scientists. They are employed by the police and typically collect evidence such as gunshot
residue, fingerprints, hairs and fibres.
• SOCOs must go through a substantial amount of training before they become qualified to do their job, meaning they are
very knowledgeable on how to preserve evidence and assure that it is admissible for court. Due to this expertise, they are
often called upon in court as reliable experts.
• They are also sufficiently trained in using a wide range of equipment to gather DNA evidence, which will benefit the court
case and make it more probable that the case will be solved. They are also available 24 hours a day, allowing them to reach
crime scenes as soon as possible to gather evidence, rather than having to wait to morning where evidence may become
contaminated.
• On the other hand, SOCOs also face many of the same issues as the police do due to being employed by the police. A key
issue they share with the police is funding. Budget cuts have led to different areas getting different amounts of funding,
meaning different police forces may have more or less SOCOs than other forces which may mean that the effectiveness of
the SOCOs change depending on location.
• A lack of funding also means less resources, which could impact the collection and storage of evidence if they cannot collect
evidence using the appropriate tools. This could lead to evidence being contaminated, reducing the effectiveness of the
scene of crime officers. In addition to this, collecting evidence can be expensive, both in terms of time and the physical cost.
If a team of SOCOs are already busy processing a crime scene, and they were required at another crime scene, budget cuts
would mean there aren't enough SOCOs to process both crime scenes, and this increases the risk of one crime scene
becoming contaminated.
,• An example of this is the case of Amanda Knox. Amanda spent almost 4 years in an Italian prison following her conviction
for the 2007 murder of Meredith Kercher, a fellow exchange student who shared her apartment, but in 2015, Amanda was
acquitted. One of the SOCOs went to the crime scene and did not wear protective clothing, they also broke down the door
but there was blood on the door so it could have been contaminated. The SOCOs left the bra covered in Meredith's blood at
the crime scene.
forensic scientists
• Forensic scientists collect evidence from crime scenes and analyse them to produce information for the court. This means
working with and analysing/interpretation samples such as hair, body fluids and blood which provide DNA analysis. This is
then used as evidence in court to aid in a criminal investigation and to secure a conviction.
• Forensic scientists are medically qualified doctors, registered by the General Medical Council (GMC) with a licence to
practise medicine. An advantage of this role is that they are trained professionals who often specialise in one area and are
therefore highly knowledgeable.
• Specialist areas include dentistry, toxicology and computers etc. Another advantage is that DNA is found in every cell in the
human body and is unique to every individual. This means that DNA evidence can be used to prove innocence or guilt as
well as help identify victims
• A limitation of this role is that requires extreme precision and accuracy as minor errors can lead to wrong results that can be
detrimental to a case, and even then, the results can sometimes be manipulated based on the forensic scientist beliefs and
bias. DNA analysis can also its limitations too. For a sample to have a match, the perpetrator must already be on the
National DNA Database. DNA trace can also incriminate individuals who have nothing to do with a crime or investigation. It
can be very expensive and time consuming.
• This has led to police forces typically employing firms that offer the lowest cost or quickest turnaround time for testing
evidence, jeopardising quality and could lead to miscarriages of justice. Tight timescales lead to mistakes being made or not
enough being done to investigate the evidence properly. Additionally, some people believe that DNA analysis goes against
human ethics as it involves storing and revealing private information.
• An example of this is the case of David Camm who was a victim of a miscarriage of justice and spent 13 years in jail for the
murder of his wife and two children. Due to the pattern of the blood splatters on David’s shirt, which he contacted whilst
trying to give his son CPR, forensic scientists concluded that he had been behind the murders.
pathologists
• Forensic pathologists are medical doctors who specialise in performing autopsies to understand and establish the cause of
death in criminal cases and investigations.
• A strength of this role is that pathologists are highly trained professionals who have gone through years of schooling and
have extensive knowledge on many areas such as anatomy and pathology etc. These autopsies can serve as evidence in
criminal cases and can help aid investigation by giving other personnel more insight. Manner of death as well of mechanism
of death can be deduced, and there is also an opportunity to collect trace evidence. In an autopsy, the pathologist will look
at tissues under a microscope in an attempt to identify disease and toxins.
• They will examine wounds such as bullet holes, which can determine the type of gunpowder used, what angle the bullet
came from, and where the bullet went within the body. If the identity of the corpse is unknown, a DNA test can provide
answers which can rule out certain aspects of an investigation and potential suspects.
• A limitation is that pathologists can be very expensive. All the needed tests and equipment, and paying the pathologist’s
salary, can add up and become very expensive. Mistakes are also costly, and the pathologist must be extremely precise to
not misrepresenting the victim. They must make conclusions, and even educated guesses are sometimes wrong, and may
fail to stand up in court. Each scientist will view the same data differently, and arguments may arise.
• Few people can perform this job, due to the long training period, required affluency in science, and often disgusting
conditions. In addition, ethical issues may arise, including conflicts with people opposed to tests such as DNA analysis on the
body. Lack of pathologists means an increased workload which can cause delays and if rushed errors and mistakes.
• An example of this is the case of Sally Clark who was a victim of a miscarriage of justice when she was found guilty of the
murder of her two-infant son. Alan Williams, the forensic pathologist who examined both babies, had failed to disclose
microbiological reports that suggested the one of her sons had died of natural causes resulting in Sally Clark serving 3 years
of her sentence.
crown prosecution service
• The Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) is an independent prosecution agency that prosecutes criminal cases that have been
investigated by the police. It serves to provide justice and was established in 1985 by the Prosecution of Offences Act 1985.
Prior to this, date the police both investigated and prosecuted crimes but it was felt that a more independent organisation
one separate from the police was needed.
,• The main roles of the CPS are to advise the police in early stages of the investigation, decide what cases to prosecute,
determine the considerate charge, prepare the cases for court and present cases in court. As the CPS is an independent
service, a strength of theirs is that they are free from political and other external pressures.
• The CPS employ legal experts who are educated, highly trained and have experience, they have over 5000 fully qualified
solicitors and prosecutors
• However, a limitation of CPS is that they have been criticised for their failure to prosecute crime due to “insufficient
evidence”. The CPS discontinues over 150,000 cases a year. Despite there are being 1.57 million cases a year, only 1.2
million cases are prosecuted. Sometimes the police downgrade charges to ensure a successful conviction, especially in cases
that are difficult to ‘prove’ such as rape.
• This means that the defendant is not being tried for the offence they have committed, and the offender will not be
punished appropriately meaning true justice has not been served. Another limitation is that the CPS has also been accused
of being racist alongside the MET police.
• Weak cases against ethnic minorities are taken to court and as a result there are higher conviction rates for black and ethnic
minority defendants at 42% whereas their white counterparts are at 30%. Additionally, the CPS and the police have a
historically bad relationship with each other which leads to conflict in cases.
• An example would be the murder of Damilola Taylor, where the case collapsed after the evidence provided by a key witness
was dismissed when she was shown to have lied. The CPS had failed to check her account prior to trial which resulted in the
acquittal of all four suspects.
• Another example is the Jimmy Savile case. The CPS refused to prosecute him despite several complaints from victims being
filed with the police. It wasn’t until after his death that an investigation was held and the MET police found almost 600
victims involved, the majority being underage.
AC1.2 - Assess The Usefulness Of Investigative Techniques In Criminal Investigations (20 marks – 90
mins) Link to brief
Database
• The police use many types of databases to store and access information and data to help fight and prevent crime. The police
have many different types of databases such as the Police National Database (PND), the Police National Computer (PNC)
and the United Kingdom National DNA Database (NDNAD).
• The PND is a management system that allows the police to access direct intelligence that has been collected from other
police forces such as information regarding crime, domestic abuse, child abuse and custody business areas. Information
from the PND is used for a variety of purposes, including keeping order, preventing the commission of crimes, prosecuting
offenders, protecting life and property, and national security.
• 43 police forces in England and Wales and 8 forces in Scotland and Northern Ireland now have access to the PNC. The PNC
presently has multiple databases and is available 24/7 to provide access to information on both local and national issues. 13
million person records, 58.5 million driver data, and 62.6 million vehicle records are all kept on the PNC as of January 2021.
• The NDNAD holds electronic records of DNA, also known as profile records, which is taken from individuals and crime
scenes, and it helps provide the police with matches linking an individual to a crime scene or crime to another crime. In
2020, it had profiles for 5.6 million individuals excluding duplicates. The profiles come from samples of human material
found at crime scenes, for example saliva, hair, blood and skin flakes etc.
• A strength of DNA databases is that DNA is found in every cell in the human body and is unique to the individual. Studies
have shown that DNA evidence is extremely accurate therefore making it one of the most reliable sources of evidence used
in court. When a DNA match is found, it can strengthen the case made against a suspect, especially when paired with other
forms of evidence.
• As DNA evidence is 99% accurate, any mistakes made are usually due to human error. Another strength is that DNA
databases allow for justice to be served by allowing old cold cases to be solved. This is due to partial DNA matches. As
relatives share similarities in DNA, if someone closely related to the offender is inputted into the database, a match can be
made to a cold case.
• This can be seen in the case of Collet Aram who was a 16-year-old girl who was abducted, raped and strangled in
Nottinghamshire in October 1983. Her killer wasn’t caught but later in 2008 following the advances of forensic technology,
police were able to convict Paul Stewart Hutchinson of the crime in 2009 due to a partial DNA match. Paul’s son Jean-Paul
was arrested on motoring charges and saliva swabs were taken.
• His DNA was almost an exact match but he would not have been born at the time of the murder, it was then deduced that
his father must have committed the crime instead. Paul was sentenced to a minimum of 25 years.
• However, there are some risks posed by DNA databases such as data being kept infinitely, this can especially pose a risk if
the database is made public and easily accessible. People with ill intent may use information stored on these databases
negatively. It could also lead to the police gaining subconscious biases if a person has a profile in the system, they could
, assume them guilty and a fair and impartial investigation and/or court case may not take place. Ethical issues have also
been raised as some individuals view it as a threat to privacy.
• DNA is very personal and can reveal many facts about an individual such as their gender, ethnicity and what diseases they
are at risk too. In order for a match to be made and link an offender to a crime, there must already be a pre existing record
in the database and sometimes partial/trace evidence can be used to convict an innocent person. There are also concerns
about cross contamination.
• This prevents the occurrence of miscarriages of justice. An example of this is the case of Adam Scott whose DNA was found
on a reused plastic tray in a rape case. Adam spent 5 months on bail despite his phone records suggesting that he was
almost 300 miles away in Devon.
Forensic
• Forensic techniques refer to the scientific methods and technologies that are employed to analyze and interpret physical
evidence collected from a crime scene or a victim's body. These techniques are used to help investigation, identify suspects
and provide evidence for or against allegations made in court.
• Strengths
o Forensic techniques have greatly increased the accuracy of criminal investigations, leading to more convictions of
the guilty and acquittals of the innocent. Physical evidence such as DNA, fingerprints, and bloodstains are 99.99%
accurate and provide compelling evidence in court.
o Forensics also produce objective evidence that is not subject to interpretation by witnesses or investigators. This
means that the evidence can be used to corroborate or disprove a suspect's alibi, providing a more reliable basis
for reaching a verdict.
o Another pro is that forensic techniques have evolved rapidly over the past few decades, with new technologies and
methods constantly being developed. This means that investigators have a wider range of tools at their disposal to
analyse physical evidence and are better equipped to identify suspects and build a case against them.
• Limitations
o Despite forensics producing objective evidence, they can only be as reliable as the people performing them.
Human error can occur at any stage of the forensic process, from evidence collection to analysis and can lead to
inaccurate or unreliable results.
o Forensic evidence can also be subject to a forensic scientist’s bias. Some forensic methods rely on subjective
interpretation, and the results may be influenced by the investigator's prior beliefs or assumptions.
o Collecting, analysing and producing forensic evidence is very time consuming and can be very expensive. Forensic
scientists must be highly trained and educated and therefore their salaries can be up to £45,000. This can be
particularly challenging as the police force and the CPS already suffer from underfunding.
• An example where forensic techniques were used was in the case of Rachel Nickell in 1992. Although Colin Stagg was
originally arrested and charged with the murder, the evidence against him was circumstantial. The case was later reviewed
by a forensic psychologist who reanalysed the DNA evidence and found that Robert Napper was the murderer.
Surveillance – CCTV
• Surveillance refers to the use of technology to monitor individuals or groups of people in order to gather information about
their activities. Surveillance is used by law enforcement agencies for a variety of purposes, including gathering evidence,
preventing crime, and ensuring public safety. There are two main types of surveillance used in the UK: covert police
surveillance and CCTV surveillance.
• Covert surveillance is a form of surveillance where an individual is not aware they are being watched. There are two types of
covert surveillance according to mi5.gov.uk: directed and intrusive. Directed surveillance involves monitoring a targets
movements and conversations etc., while intrusive surveillance involves monitoring a targets by, for example,
eavesdropping on residential premises or within a private vehicle. This form of surveillance is helpful in cases concerning
terrorism, the drug trade, insurance fraud etc.
• Strengths
o Surveillance can act as a deterrent to crime. This is because individuals may be less likely to engage in criminal
activity if they know they are being monitored. There are street cameras everywhere, this includes cameras in and
around shops, on motorways, streets and even around homes if individuals have home security cameras such as a
Ring doorbell.
o It can be an effective way of gathering evidence in criminal investigations by providing valuable information about
the movement and activities of suspects. It is one of the first things that police ask for in an investigation. It can
show the exact play out of a crime and can be used in court to secure a conviction.
, oCCTV can help improve public safety by providing monitoring and surveillance of public spaces. This allows for the
detection of potential threats or emergencies.
• Limitations
o However, some people see surveillance as an invasion of privacy as they may believe that it infringes on individual
rights and freedoms.
o Surveillance techniques, especially convert, can be expensive in terms of the equipment and personnel, and can
also be dangerous in serious criminal cases. There is also a concern on its validity and admissibility in court.
• An example of a case where surveillance was used is the 1999 London nail bombings. CCTV footage was used extensively in
the investigation to identify the suspect. Images of the suspect was released, and this led to a co-worker of David Copeman
recognising him and alerting the police.
Profiling
• Geographical Profiling techniques are used to help police build a psychological and behavioural profile of a suspect, based
on information gathered from the crime scene and other sources. This profile can then be used to help narrow the search
for a suspect or to support or refute other evidence in the case. There are three types of profiling techniques: geographical,
investigative, and typological. These were created by criminologist David Canter who is considered the pioneer of profiling
techniques.
• Geographical profiling involves using crime scene locations to identify areas where the offender is likely to live or work.
Investigative profiling involves developing a profile of the offender's likely behaviour, motives, and personality traits.
Typological profiling involves categorizing offenders into different types or groups based on common characteristics.
• Strengths
o Profiling techniques can help police focus their investigation on the most likely suspects by creating an offender
profile. This helps to reduce the time and resources that may be spent trying to solve a case.
o It can also help the police generate new leads and identify previously unknown suspects by providing insight into
the offender's behaviour and motives. Using evidence found at the scene, knowledge about the location of the
crime and victim, the police can make educated guess about the suspect and their next move.
o Profiling can also strengthen other forms of evidence in a case, such as eyewitness testimony or forensic evidence,
by providing context and supporting or dismissing alternative explanations.
• Limitations
o However, profiling techniques are not always accurate and can lead to false accusations and wrongful convictions.
It relies on subjective interpretation of data and can be influenced by the investigator's own biases or assumptions.
External pressure on the police and CPS to solve a case may cause them to ignore other explanations and other
forms of evidence that disagree with an offender profile.
o Although the assumptions may be an educated guess, it can still be stereotypical e.g. crimes involving theft means
that the offender is low income and has no money, or crimes involving rape mean that the offender is single or
unmarried. These stereotypes made about the offender may harm investigations as a whole pool of potential
offenders are excluded because they don’t fit the bill, this can further impact a case as police may waste time
looking for and going after the wrong suspect.
o Profilling techniques also use a lot of generalisations that can be applied to a large number of people, also known
as the Barnum Effect. It also assumes that an offenders criminal behaviour will stay the same. If an offender
commits multiple crimes of the same type, they may grow confident and change/improve their techniques.
• An example of profiling techniques is in the case of Milly Dowler in 2002. Investigative profiling was used to help identify the
offender, who was later convicted of the crime. The profiling identified the offender as a male in his 20s or 30s who was
familiar with the area where Milly disappeared. This information helped narrow the search for a suspect and provided
important leads in the investigation.
Interview – EW
• An eyewitness testimony is the account of a bystander who has seen the crime happen and then describes the events in
court. As a witness has seen the crime happen first hand, their statement is seen as reliable and a good source of evidence,
therefore they are often believed by the jury.
• An advantage of EWT is that is provides a credible source of perspective on the case, this perspective can be used to
persuade a jury in deciding if the offender is guilty or not. An EWT can also be used as evidence and can help solve crimes by
providing accounts on where, when and how a crime happened, this can especially be true in cases where a testimony is
given by the victim. If the testimony is taken right after a crime has happened, the memory of the event is still fresh and
therefore the reliability of the testimony is higher.
• However, a limitation of EWT is that memories and individual perception can be manipulated and biased. Especially in
violent crimes, testimonies can become distorted due to stress, anxiety, depression, fear and paranoia increasing chances of
(AC1.2, AC3.1, AC3.2, AC1.1, AC2.4, AC1.3, AC1.4, AC2.5, AC2.1, AC2.2, AC2.3)
AC1.1- Evaluate The Effectiveness Of The Roles Of Personnel Involved In Criminal Investigations (10
marks - 45 mins) Link to brief
police officers
• Police officers are trained personnel whose role is to maintain law and order, protect members of public and reducing the
fear of crime. They are the first people who get called to a crime scene and are trained to preserve life and evidence.
• Due to the nature and responsibilities of the police, they do have strengths, such as there are specialist units within the
police, such as the Crime Investigation Department (CID) who specialises in serious crimes to ensure they are dealt with
appropriately.
• Additional teams include firearms and underwater, allowing them to deal with all crime scenes. All departments also receive
specialist training, making them more efficient in dealing with crime scenes, and enduring evidence is not contaminated so
they have a bigger chance at catching the perpetrator. Also, due to the 24-hour availability of the police, it is assured that a
team will always respond to a crime scene as quickly as possible, making the possibility of keeping it secure higher.
Depending on the location of a crime scene, the response time is often very quick, meaning there is less chance of
contamination, making the effectiveness higher.
• However, a limitation of police officers is institutionalised sexism and racism. Many police officers get socialised through
their work into a canteen culture where negative attitude regarding race, gender and sexuality etc. are normalised and not
discouraged. This can lead to police officers being accepting of these views and having preconceived bias against people
involved in investigations. The findings of the 1999 Macpherson report, commissioned after the 1993 murder of Stephen
Lawrence, found that the police were institutionally racist and do not treat investigations involving black people with
adequate response, support or fairness.
• This can be shown with how black people are dis-proportionally affected by stop and searches in comparison to their white
counterparts in statistics collected and published by the Home Office and ONS: there were 6 stop and searches for every
1,000 White people, compared with 54 for every 1,000 Black people in 2021.
• An example of this is the case of Child Q who was a 15-year-old black female secondary school student who was strip
searched by 4 MET police without her parents/guardian’s knowledge or consent, after a teacher accused her of smelling of
weed. Child Q was racially profiled and adultified. Davis and Marsh 2020 define adultification as when the “notions of
innocence and vulnerability are not afforded to certain children”. This typically affects Black children as they are seen as
adult-like and as a result, they are more likely to be viewed as a threat or a risk, rather than a child in need of support.
Scene Of Crime Officers SOCO
• Scene of crime officers, also known as SOCOs, accurately document and process the crime scene, gather evidence, and pass
it on to the necessary forensic scientists. They are employed by the police and typically collect evidence such as gunshot
residue, fingerprints, hairs and fibres.
• SOCOs must go through a substantial amount of training before they become qualified to do their job, meaning they are
very knowledgeable on how to preserve evidence and assure that it is admissible for court. Due to this expertise, they are
often called upon in court as reliable experts.
• They are also sufficiently trained in using a wide range of equipment to gather DNA evidence, which will benefit the court
case and make it more probable that the case will be solved. They are also available 24 hours a day, allowing them to reach
crime scenes as soon as possible to gather evidence, rather than having to wait to morning where evidence may become
contaminated.
• On the other hand, SOCOs also face many of the same issues as the police do due to being employed by the police. A key
issue they share with the police is funding. Budget cuts have led to different areas getting different amounts of funding,
meaning different police forces may have more or less SOCOs than other forces which may mean that the effectiveness of
the SOCOs change depending on location.
• A lack of funding also means less resources, which could impact the collection and storage of evidence if they cannot collect
evidence using the appropriate tools. This could lead to evidence being contaminated, reducing the effectiveness of the
scene of crime officers. In addition to this, collecting evidence can be expensive, both in terms of time and the physical cost.
If a team of SOCOs are already busy processing a crime scene, and they were required at another crime scene, budget cuts
would mean there aren't enough SOCOs to process both crime scenes, and this increases the risk of one crime scene
becoming contaminated.
,• An example of this is the case of Amanda Knox. Amanda spent almost 4 years in an Italian prison following her conviction
for the 2007 murder of Meredith Kercher, a fellow exchange student who shared her apartment, but in 2015, Amanda was
acquitted. One of the SOCOs went to the crime scene and did not wear protective clothing, they also broke down the door
but there was blood on the door so it could have been contaminated. The SOCOs left the bra covered in Meredith's blood at
the crime scene.
forensic scientists
• Forensic scientists collect evidence from crime scenes and analyse them to produce information for the court. This means
working with and analysing/interpretation samples such as hair, body fluids and blood which provide DNA analysis. This is
then used as evidence in court to aid in a criminal investigation and to secure a conviction.
• Forensic scientists are medically qualified doctors, registered by the General Medical Council (GMC) with a licence to
practise medicine. An advantage of this role is that they are trained professionals who often specialise in one area and are
therefore highly knowledgeable.
• Specialist areas include dentistry, toxicology and computers etc. Another advantage is that DNA is found in every cell in the
human body and is unique to every individual. This means that DNA evidence can be used to prove innocence or guilt as
well as help identify victims
• A limitation of this role is that requires extreme precision and accuracy as minor errors can lead to wrong results that can be
detrimental to a case, and even then, the results can sometimes be manipulated based on the forensic scientist beliefs and
bias. DNA analysis can also its limitations too. For a sample to have a match, the perpetrator must already be on the
National DNA Database. DNA trace can also incriminate individuals who have nothing to do with a crime or investigation. It
can be very expensive and time consuming.
• This has led to police forces typically employing firms that offer the lowest cost or quickest turnaround time for testing
evidence, jeopardising quality and could lead to miscarriages of justice. Tight timescales lead to mistakes being made or not
enough being done to investigate the evidence properly. Additionally, some people believe that DNA analysis goes against
human ethics as it involves storing and revealing private information.
• An example of this is the case of David Camm who was a victim of a miscarriage of justice and spent 13 years in jail for the
murder of his wife and two children. Due to the pattern of the blood splatters on David’s shirt, which he contacted whilst
trying to give his son CPR, forensic scientists concluded that he had been behind the murders.
pathologists
• Forensic pathologists are medical doctors who specialise in performing autopsies to understand and establish the cause of
death in criminal cases and investigations.
• A strength of this role is that pathologists are highly trained professionals who have gone through years of schooling and
have extensive knowledge on many areas such as anatomy and pathology etc. These autopsies can serve as evidence in
criminal cases and can help aid investigation by giving other personnel more insight. Manner of death as well of mechanism
of death can be deduced, and there is also an opportunity to collect trace evidence. In an autopsy, the pathologist will look
at tissues under a microscope in an attempt to identify disease and toxins.
• They will examine wounds such as bullet holes, which can determine the type of gunpowder used, what angle the bullet
came from, and where the bullet went within the body. If the identity of the corpse is unknown, a DNA test can provide
answers which can rule out certain aspects of an investigation and potential suspects.
• A limitation is that pathologists can be very expensive. All the needed tests and equipment, and paying the pathologist’s
salary, can add up and become very expensive. Mistakes are also costly, and the pathologist must be extremely precise to
not misrepresenting the victim. They must make conclusions, and even educated guesses are sometimes wrong, and may
fail to stand up in court. Each scientist will view the same data differently, and arguments may arise.
• Few people can perform this job, due to the long training period, required affluency in science, and often disgusting
conditions. In addition, ethical issues may arise, including conflicts with people opposed to tests such as DNA analysis on the
body. Lack of pathologists means an increased workload which can cause delays and if rushed errors and mistakes.
• An example of this is the case of Sally Clark who was a victim of a miscarriage of justice when she was found guilty of the
murder of her two-infant son. Alan Williams, the forensic pathologist who examined both babies, had failed to disclose
microbiological reports that suggested the one of her sons had died of natural causes resulting in Sally Clark serving 3 years
of her sentence.
crown prosecution service
• The Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) is an independent prosecution agency that prosecutes criminal cases that have been
investigated by the police. It serves to provide justice and was established in 1985 by the Prosecution of Offences Act 1985.
Prior to this, date the police both investigated and prosecuted crimes but it was felt that a more independent organisation
one separate from the police was needed.
,• The main roles of the CPS are to advise the police in early stages of the investigation, decide what cases to prosecute,
determine the considerate charge, prepare the cases for court and present cases in court. As the CPS is an independent
service, a strength of theirs is that they are free from political and other external pressures.
• The CPS employ legal experts who are educated, highly trained and have experience, they have over 5000 fully qualified
solicitors and prosecutors
• However, a limitation of CPS is that they have been criticised for their failure to prosecute crime due to “insufficient
evidence”. The CPS discontinues over 150,000 cases a year. Despite there are being 1.57 million cases a year, only 1.2
million cases are prosecuted. Sometimes the police downgrade charges to ensure a successful conviction, especially in cases
that are difficult to ‘prove’ such as rape.
• This means that the defendant is not being tried for the offence they have committed, and the offender will not be
punished appropriately meaning true justice has not been served. Another limitation is that the CPS has also been accused
of being racist alongside the MET police.
• Weak cases against ethnic minorities are taken to court and as a result there are higher conviction rates for black and ethnic
minority defendants at 42% whereas their white counterparts are at 30%. Additionally, the CPS and the police have a
historically bad relationship with each other which leads to conflict in cases.
• An example would be the murder of Damilola Taylor, where the case collapsed after the evidence provided by a key witness
was dismissed when she was shown to have lied. The CPS had failed to check her account prior to trial which resulted in the
acquittal of all four suspects.
• Another example is the Jimmy Savile case. The CPS refused to prosecute him despite several complaints from victims being
filed with the police. It wasn’t until after his death that an investigation was held and the MET police found almost 600
victims involved, the majority being underage.
AC1.2 - Assess The Usefulness Of Investigative Techniques In Criminal Investigations (20 marks – 90
mins) Link to brief
Database
• The police use many types of databases to store and access information and data to help fight and prevent crime. The police
have many different types of databases such as the Police National Database (PND), the Police National Computer (PNC)
and the United Kingdom National DNA Database (NDNAD).
• The PND is a management system that allows the police to access direct intelligence that has been collected from other
police forces such as information regarding crime, domestic abuse, child abuse and custody business areas. Information
from the PND is used for a variety of purposes, including keeping order, preventing the commission of crimes, prosecuting
offenders, protecting life and property, and national security.
• 43 police forces in England and Wales and 8 forces in Scotland and Northern Ireland now have access to the PNC. The PNC
presently has multiple databases and is available 24/7 to provide access to information on both local and national issues. 13
million person records, 58.5 million driver data, and 62.6 million vehicle records are all kept on the PNC as of January 2021.
• The NDNAD holds electronic records of DNA, also known as profile records, which is taken from individuals and crime
scenes, and it helps provide the police with matches linking an individual to a crime scene or crime to another crime. In
2020, it had profiles for 5.6 million individuals excluding duplicates. The profiles come from samples of human material
found at crime scenes, for example saliva, hair, blood and skin flakes etc.
• A strength of DNA databases is that DNA is found in every cell in the human body and is unique to the individual. Studies
have shown that DNA evidence is extremely accurate therefore making it one of the most reliable sources of evidence used
in court. When a DNA match is found, it can strengthen the case made against a suspect, especially when paired with other
forms of evidence.
• As DNA evidence is 99% accurate, any mistakes made are usually due to human error. Another strength is that DNA
databases allow for justice to be served by allowing old cold cases to be solved. This is due to partial DNA matches. As
relatives share similarities in DNA, if someone closely related to the offender is inputted into the database, a match can be
made to a cold case.
• This can be seen in the case of Collet Aram who was a 16-year-old girl who was abducted, raped and strangled in
Nottinghamshire in October 1983. Her killer wasn’t caught but later in 2008 following the advances of forensic technology,
police were able to convict Paul Stewart Hutchinson of the crime in 2009 due to a partial DNA match. Paul’s son Jean-Paul
was arrested on motoring charges and saliva swabs were taken.
• His DNA was almost an exact match but he would not have been born at the time of the murder, it was then deduced that
his father must have committed the crime instead. Paul was sentenced to a minimum of 25 years.
• However, there are some risks posed by DNA databases such as data being kept infinitely, this can especially pose a risk if
the database is made public and easily accessible. People with ill intent may use information stored on these databases
negatively. It could also lead to the police gaining subconscious biases if a person has a profile in the system, they could
, assume them guilty and a fair and impartial investigation and/or court case may not take place. Ethical issues have also
been raised as some individuals view it as a threat to privacy.
• DNA is very personal and can reveal many facts about an individual such as their gender, ethnicity and what diseases they
are at risk too. In order for a match to be made and link an offender to a crime, there must already be a pre existing record
in the database and sometimes partial/trace evidence can be used to convict an innocent person. There are also concerns
about cross contamination.
• This prevents the occurrence of miscarriages of justice. An example of this is the case of Adam Scott whose DNA was found
on a reused plastic tray in a rape case. Adam spent 5 months on bail despite his phone records suggesting that he was
almost 300 miles away in Devon.
Forensic
• Forensic techniques refer to the scientific methods and technologies that are employed to analyze and interpret physical
evidence collected from a crime scene or a victim's body. These techniques are used to help investigation, identify suspects
and provide evidence for or against allegations made in court.
• Strengths
o Forensic techniques have greatly increased the accuracy of criminal investigations, leading to more convictions of
the guilty and acquittals of the innocent. Physical evidence such as DNA, fingerprints, and bloodstains are 99.99%
accurate and provide compelling evidence in court.
o Forensics also produce objective evidence that is not subject to interpretation by witnesses or investigators. This
means that the evidence can be used to corroborate or disprove a suspect's alibi, providing a more reliable basis
for reaching a verdict.
o Another pro is that forensic techniques have evolved rapidly over the past few decades, with new technologies and
methods constantly being developed. This means that investigators have a wider range of tools at their disposal to
analyse physical evidence and are better equipped to identify suspects and build a case against them.
• Limitations
o Despite forensics producing objective evidence, they can only be as reliable as the people performing them.
Human error can occur at any stage of the forensic process, from evidence collection to analysis and can lead to
inaccurate or unreliable results.
o Forensic evidence can also be subject to a forensic scientist’s bias. Some forensic methods rely on subjective
interpretation, and the results may be influenced by the investigator's prior beliefs or assumptions.
o Collecting, analysing and producing forensic evidence is very time consuming and can be very expensive. Forensic
scientists must be highly trained and educated and therefore their salaries can be up to £45,000. This can be
particularly challenging as the police force and the CPS already suffer from underfunding.
• An example where forensic techniques were used was in the case of Rachel Nickell in 1992. Although Colin Stagg was
originally arrested and charged with the murder, the evidence against him was circumstantial. The case was later reviewed
by a forensic psychologist who reanalysed the DNA evidence and found that Robert Napper was the murderer.
Surveillance – CCTV
• Surveillance refers to the use of technology to monitor individuals or groups of people in order to gather information about
their activities. Surveillance is used by law enforcement agencies for a variety of purposes, including gathering evidence,
preventing crime, and ensuring public safety. There are two main types of surveillance used in the UK: covert police
surveillance and CCTV surveillance.
• Covert surveillance is a form of surveillance where an individual is not aware they are being watched. There are two types of
covert surveillance according to mi5.gov.uk: directed and intrusive. Directed surveillance involves monitoring a targets
movements and conversations etc., while intrusive surveillance involves monitoring a targets by, for example,
eavesdropping on residential premises or within a private vehicle. This form of surveillance is helpful in cases concerning
terrorism, the drug trade, insurance fraud etc.
• Strengths
o Surveillance can act as a deterrent to crime. This is because individuals may be less likely to engage in criminal
activity if they know they are being monitored. There are street cameras everywhere, this includes cameras in and
around shops, on motorways, streets and even around homes if individuals have home security cameras such as a
Ring doorbell.
o It can be an effective way of gathering evidence in criminal investigations by providing valuable information about
the movement and activities of suspects. It is one of the first things that police ask for in an investigation. It can
show the exact play out of a crime and can be used in court to secure a conviction.
, oCCTV can help improve public safety by providing monitoring and surveillance of public spaces. This allows for the
detection of potential threats or emergencies.
• Limitations
o However, some people see surveillance as an invasion of privacy as they may believe that it infringes on individual
rights and freedoms.
o Surveillance techniques, especially convert, can be expensive in terms of the equipment and personnel, and can
also be dangerous in serious criminal cases. There is also a concern on its validity and admissibility in court.
• An example of a case where surveillance was used is the 1999 London nail bombings. CCTV footage was used extensively in
the investigation to identify the suspect. Images of the suspect was released, and this led to a co-worker of David Copeman
recognising him and alerting the police.
Profiling
• Geographical Profiling techniques are used to help police build a psychological and behavioural profile of a suspect, based
on information gathered from the crime scene and other sources. This profile can then be used to help narrow the search
for a suspect or to support or refute other evidence in the case. There are three types of profiling techniques: geographical,
investigative, and typological. These were created by criminologist David Canter who is considered the pioneer of profiling
techniques.
• Geographical profiling involves using crime scene locations to identify areas where the offender is likely to live or work.
Investigative profiling involves developing a profile of the offender's likely behaviour, motives, and personality traits.
Typological profiling involves categorizing offenders into different types or groups based on common characteristics.
• Strengths
o Profiling techniques can help police focus their investigation on the most likely suspects by creating an offender
profile. This helps to reduce the time and resources that may be spent trying to solve a case.
o It can also help the police generate new leads and identify previously unknown suspects by providing insight into
the offender's behaviour and motives. Using evidence found at the scene, knowledge about the location of the
crime and victim, the police can make educated guess about the suspect and their next move.
o Profiling can also strengthen other forms of evidence in a case, such as eyewitness testimony or forensic evidence,
by providing context and supporting or dismissing alternative explanations.
• Limitations
o However, profiling techniques are not always accurate and can lead to false accusations and wrongful convictions.
It relies on subjective interpretation of data and can be influenced by the investigator's own biases or assumptions.
External pressure on the police and CPS to solve a case may cause them to ignore other explanations and other
forms of evidence that disagree with an offender profile.
o Although the assumptions may be an educated guess, it can still be stereotypical e.g. crimes involving theft means
that the offender is low income and has no money, or crimes involving rape mean that the offender is single or
unmarried. These stereotypes made about the offender may harm investigations as a whole pool of potential
offenders are excluded because they don’t fit the bill, this can further impact a case as police may waste time
looking for and going after the wrong suspect.
o Profilling techniques also use a lot of generalisations that can be applied to a large number of people, also known
as the Barnum Effect. It also assumes that an offenders criminal behaviour will stay the same. If an offender
commits multiple crimes of the same type, they may grow confident and change/improve their techniques.
• An example of profiling techniques is in the case of Milly Dowler in 2002. Investigative profiling was used to help identify the
offender, who was later convicted of the crime. The profiling identified the offender as a male in his 20s or 30s who was
familiar with the area where Milly disappeared. This information helped narrow the search for a suspect and provided
important leads in the investigation.
Interview – EW
• An eyewitness testimony is the account of a bystander who has seen the crime happen and then describes the events in
court. As a witness has seen the crime happen first hand, their statement is seen as reliable and a good source of evidence,
therefore they are often believed by the jury.
• An advantage of EWT is that is provides a credible source of perspective on the case, this perspective can be used to
persuade a jury in deciding if the offender is guilty or not. An EWT can also be used as evidence and can help solve crimes by
providing accounts on where, when and how a crime happened, this can especially be true in cases where a testimony is
given by the victim. If the testimony is taken right after a crime has happened, the memory of the event is still fresh and
therefore the reliability of the testimony is higher.
• However, a limitation of EWT is that memories and individual perception can be manipulated and biased. Especially in
violent crimes, testimonies can become distorted due to stress, anxiety, depression, fear and paranoia increasing chances of
