MCAT Psych/Sociology 2023 Test Guide with complete
solution
Biopsychosocial approach to health and illness
Illness is determined by a variety of influences, rather than a single cause. The causes
and effects of illness can be examined at multiple levels in the life of an individual, and
no single level provides the whole picture. Collecting info about psychosocial context is
key to the understanding of physical health and illness.
Biomedical approach to health and illness
Disease is studied by examining only the biological factors of illness, neglecting
contributing factors of psychological life and sociological context.
Models
Provide an approximation (physical/conceptual representation) of a scientific
phenomenon that cannot be observed directly
Theories
Provides the conceptual framework for understanding objects of study
Social constructionism
Human actors actively construct their "reality", rather than discovering a reality that has
inherent validity, through their social interactions. The beliefs and shared
understandings of individuals create social realities.
In the context of illness, there is a gap b/t the biological reality of a medical condition
and the societally created meaning of the condition. (ex. changing conceptualizations of
mental illness results in changes to the DSM). It is a dynamic, ongoing process.
Brute facts vs Institutional Facts
-Part of WEAK social constructionism
-Brute facts are physical realities that exist outside of human input
-Institutional facts only exist as a function of society's structures and beliefs
Symbolic interactionism
Micro social perspective. Focuses on the smaller scale interactions between individuals
in small groups. Through social interactions, individuals develop shared meanings and
labels for various symbols. Allows for human agency in creating and changing meaning
in society, rather than society acting upon the individual. Meaning can change with a
single interaction, so addresses subjective meanings. Humans ascribe meaning to
things, act based on those meanings, use language to generate meaning through social
interaction, and modify meanings through thought processes. However, ignores larger
societal forces that shape people's lives.
Symbols
Terms, concepts, or items that represent specific meanings by accepted convention.
Meanings ascribed to symbols are determined by social norms and cultural values.
Functionalism
Founder: Emile Durkheim
Macrosocial perspective
-Factions of society work together to maintain stability. Society is a system that consists
of different components working together, with distinct institutions that contribute to
functioning. Seeks to understand what different structures in society contribute to
,society at large. When disruptions occur, the interacting systems respond to get back to
a stable state. Explains societal stability but NOT societal change (assumes stability is
the ideal)
Conflict Theory
Founder: Karl Marx
Macrosocial perspective
Views society in terms of competing groups that act according to their own self-
interests, rather than according to the need for societal equilibrium. Society is a
competition for limited resources. Explains societal changes but NOT societal societal
stability (assumes stability is undesirable to societal groups that are oppressed) Views
human actions in terms of larger forces of inequality, but leaves motivations choices of
individuals unexamined. Ignores the non-forceful ways in which people reach
agreement, and approaches society more from those who lack power. Tends to be too
economically focused.
Culture
All of the beliefs, assumptions, objects, behaviors, and processes that make up a
shared way of life. Has a pervasive effect on worldview.
Culture shock
The discomfort and ensuring reevaluation of personal cultural assumptions when an
individual experiences a culture different from her own
Material culture
Objects involved in a certain way of life
Nonmaterial culture
Encompasses the elements of cultures that are not physical. Includes shared ideas,
knowledge, assumptions, values, and beliefs that unify a group of people.
Social norms
Expectations that govern what behavior is acceptable within a group. Social interactions
help define a culture by establishing these
Social group
A subset of a population that maintains social interactions. Alternatively, includes a
collection of shared experiences that create a group identity among a set of individuals
Symbolic culture
Non-material culture that consists of the elements of culture that only have meaning in
the mind. Based on a shared system of collective beliefs in the form of symbols.
Includes the meanings ascribed to rituals, gestures, and objects.
Language
The use of symbols to represent ideas
Society
Two or more individuals living together in a definable area and/or sharing elements of a
culture. A society can encompass multiple cultures.
Social institutions
Stable hierarchical systems that bring order to interpersonal interactions, structuring
society. Examples are government/economy, education, religion, family, and
health/medicine. Provide predictability and organization for individuals within a society,
and mediate social behavior between people.
Government/economy as a social institution
,Provides order to a society through the services it provides and the making and
enforcement of law
Education as a social institution
Provides a formal structure during childhood and the transition to adulthood, and an
opportunity to instruct youth on social norms, expectations for behavior, knowledge, and
skills needed to operate within society. Its manifest function is to systematically pass
down knowledge and give status to those who have been educated. Its latent function is
socialization, serving as agents of change, and maintaining social control. Serves to
reinforce and perpetuate social inequalities. Experience educational segregation
because of differential funding of schools based on residential segregation.
Religion as a social institution
Acts as an organized structure of behaviors and social interactions that addresses the
spiritual needs of society. From a functionalist standpoint, can create social
cohesion/dissent, social change/control, and provide believers with meaning and
purpose.
Religion
A system of beliefs that affects how people make sense of their experiences and
provides a framework for questions about life, death, and the purpose of existence
Family as a social institution
Creates a social group in which to procreate, rear children, pass on cultural knowledge,
and cooperate to better meet life's challenge
The nuclear family
The concept of family in which one man and one woman live together with their
children; most common concept of family in the US. Consists of DIRECT blood
relations.
Polygamy
An individual married to more than one individual
Polyandry
More than one man married to one woman
Health/medicine as a social institution
Fulfills the need for healthcare in an organized manner, with beliefs about diseases and
approaches to healing varying between societies and cultures
Demographics
Statistics used to examine the nature of a specific population by quantifying subsets of
that population. They are a statistical snapshot in time, and do not capture the ever-
changing nature of society.
Quantified demographic parameters include:
Age, gender, nationality, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, SES, immigration status,
education level
Demographic transition
A demographic change that takes place over time
Fertility
The production of offspring within a population
Cohort study
Following a subset of a population over a lifetime
Period study
, Examining the number of offspring produced during a specific time period
Mortality
The death rate within a population.
Migration
The relocation of people from one place to another; influences population size
Immigration
The influx of new people to a specific area; increases population size
Emigration
The outflow of people to other areas; reduces population size
Social movement
Group of people who share an ideology and work together toward a specific set of goals
Urbanization
Increase in the proportion of people living in specified urban areas, due to
industrialization
Globalization
Increasing amount of interaction and integration on the international scale through
exchange of products, services, ideas and information
Social inequality
The unequal distribution of opportunities or treatment of individuals within a society
based on various demographic categories
Spatial inequality
Unequal access to resources and variable quantity of life within a population or
geographical distribution. Can be affected by income, unemployment, and unequal
access to resources. Influences health by affecting access to healthcare
Environmental justice
The equal treatment of all people regardless of race, gender, or other social grouping
with regard to prevention and relief from environmental and health hazards
Residential segregation
Instance of social inequality on the local scale, where demographic groups are
separated into different locations with unequal access to resources
Food deserts
Areas where it is difficult to find affordable, healthy food options. More common in highly
populated low-income urban neighborhoods where there are fewer grocery
stores/transportation options to seek out other food choices. Contribute to obesity in
these areas bc people resort to buying cheap, highly caloric foods
Social class
System of stratification that groups members of society according to similarities in social
standing. Multifaceted, and tied to status within a community and power
Power
Influence over a community
People in higher social class tend to have more:
Power, Privilege, and Prestige
Socioeconomic status (SES)
Defines the economic and social position of a person in terms of income, wealth,
education, and occupation
Income vs wealth
solution
Biopsychosocial approach to health and illness
Illness is determined by a variety of influences, rather than a single cause. The causes
and effects of illness can be examined at multiple levels in the life of an individual, and
no single level provides the whole picture. Collecting info about psychosocial context is
key to the understanding of physical health and illness.
Biomedical approach to health and illness
Disease is studied by examining only the biological factors of illness, neglecting
contributing factors of psychological life and sociological context.
Models
Provide an approximation (physical/conceptual representation) of a scientific
phenomenon that cannot be observed directly
Theories
Provides the conceptual framework for understanding objects of study
Social constructionism
Human actors actively construct their "reality", rather than discovering a reality that has
inherent validity, through their social interactions. The beliefs and shared
understandings of individuals create social realities.
In the context of illness, there is a gap b/t the biological reality of a medical condition
and the societally created meaning of the condition. (ex. changing conceptualizations of
mental illness results in changes to the DSM). It is a dynamic, ongoing process.
Brute facts vs Institutional Facts
-Part of WEAK social constructionism
-Brute facts are physical realities that exist outside of human input
-Institutional facts only exist as a function of society's structures and beliefs
Symbolic interactionism
Micro social perspective. Focuses on the smaller scale interactions between individuals
in small groups. Through social interactions, individuals develop shared meanings and
labels for various symbols. Allows for human agency in creating and changing meaning
in society, rather than society acting upon the individual. Meaning can change with a
single interaction, so addresses subjective meanings. Humans ascribe meaning to
things, act based on those meanings, use language to generate meaning through social
interaction, and modify meanings through thought processes. However, ignores larger
societal forces that shape people's lives.
Symbols
Terms, concepts, or items that represent specific meanings by accepted convention.
Meanings ascribed to symbols are determined by social norms and cultural values.
Functionalism
Founder: Emile Durkheim
Macrosocial perspective
-Factions of society work together to maintain stability. Society is a system that consists
of different components working together, with distinct institutions that contribute to
functioning. Seeks to understand what different structures in society contribute to
,society at large. When disruptions occur, the interacting systems respond to get back to
a stable state. Explains societal stability but NOT societal change (assumes stability is
the ideal)
Conflict Theory
Founder: Karl Marx
Macrosocial perspective
Views society in terms of competing groups that act according to their own self-
interests, rather than according to the need for societal equilibrium. Society is a
competition for limited resources. Explains societal changes but NOT societal societal
stability (assumes stability is undesirable to societal groups that are oppressed) Views
human actions in terms of larger forces of inequality, but leaves motivations choices of
individuals unexamined. Ignores the non-forceful ways in which people reach
agreement, and approaches society more from those who lack power. Tends to be too
economically focused.
Culture
All of the beliefs, assumptions, objects, behaviors, and processes that make up a
shared way of life. Has a pervasive effect on worldview.
Culture shock
The discomfort and ensuring reevaluation of personal cultural assumptions when an
individual experiences a culture different from her own
Material culture
Objects involved in a certain way of life
Nonmaterial culture
Encompasses the elements of cultures that are not physical. Includes shared ideas,
knowledge, assumptions, values, and beliefs that unify a group of people.
Social norms
Expectations that govern what behavior is acceptable within a group. Social interactions
help define a culture by establishing these
Social group
A subset of a population that maintains social interactions. Alternatively, includes a
collection of shared experiences that create a group identity among a set of individuals
Symbolic culture
Non-material culture that consists of the elements of culture that only have meaning in
the mind. Based on a shared system of collective beliefs in the form of symbols.
Includes the meanings ascribed to rituals, gestures, and objects.
Language
The use of symbols to represent ideas
Society
Two or more individuals living together in a definable area and/or sharing elements of a
culture. A society can encompass multiple cultures.
Social institutions
Stable hierarchical systems that bring order to interpersonal interactions, structuring
society. Examples are government/economy, education, religion, family, and
health/medicine. Provide predictability and organization for individuals within a society,
and mediate social behavior between people.
Government/economy as a social institution
,Provides order to a society through the services it provides and the making and
enforcement of law
Education as a social institution
Provides a formal structure during childhood and the transition to adulthood, and an
opportunity to instruct youth on social norms, expectations for behavior, knowledge, and
skills needed to operate within society. Its manifest function is to systematically pass
down knowledge and give status to those who have been educated. Its latent function is
socialization, serving as agents of change, and maintaining social control. Serves to
reinforce and perpetuate social inequalities. Experience educational segregation
because of differential funding of schools based on residential segregation.
Religion as a social institution
Acts as an organized structure of behaviors and social interactions that addresses the
spiritual needs of society. From a functionalist standpoint, can create social
cohesion/dissent, social change/control, and provide believers with meaning and
purpose.
Religion
A system of beliefs that affects how people make sense of their experiences and
provides a framework for questions about life, death, and the purpose of existence
Family as a social institution
Creates a social group in which to procreate, rear children, pass on cultural knowledge,
and cooperate to better meet life's challenge
The nuclear family
The concept of family in which one man and one woman live together with their
children; most common concept of family in the US. Consists of DIRECT blood
relations.
Polygamy
An individual married to more than one individual
Polyandry
More than one man married to one woman
Health/medicine as a social institution
Fulfills the need for healthcare in an organized manner, with beliefs about diseases and
approaches to healing varying between societies and cultures
Demographics
Statistics used to examine the nature of a specific population by quantifying subsets of
that population. They are a statistical snapshot in time, and do not capture the ever-
changing nature of society.
Quantified demographic parameters include:
Age, gender, nationality, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, SES, immigration status,
education level
Demographic transition
A demographic change that takes place over time
Fertility
The production of offspring within a population
Cohort study
Following a subset of a population over a lifetime
Period study
, Examining the number of offspring produced during a specific time period
Mortality
The death rate within a population.
Migration
The relocation of people from one place to another; influences population size
Immigration
The influx of new people to a specific area; increases population size
Emigration
The outflow of people to other areas; reduces population size
Social movement
Group of people who share an ideology and work together toward a specific set of goals
Urbanization
Increase in the proportion of people living in specified urban areas, due to
industrialization
Globalization
Increasing amount of interaction and integration on the international scale through
exchange of products, services, ideas and information
Social inequality
The unequal distribution of opportunities or treatment of individuals within a society
based on various demographic categories
Spatial inequality
Unequal access to resources and variable quantity of life within a population or
geographical distribution. Can be affected by income, unemployment, and unequal
access to resources. Influences health by affecting access to healthcare
Environmental justice
The equal treatment of all people regardless of race, gender, or other social grouping
with regard to prevention and relief from environmental and health hazards
Residential segregation
Instance of social inequality on the local scale, where demographic groups are
separated into different locations with unequal access to resources
Food deserts
Areas where it is difficult to find affordable, healthy food options. More common in highly
populated low-income urban neighborhoods where there are fewer grocery
stores/transportation options to seek out other food choices. Contribute to obesity in
these areas bc people resort to buying cheap, highly caloric foods
Social class
System of stratification that groups members of society according to similarities in social
standing. Multifaceted, and tied to status within a community and power
Power
Influence over a community
People in higher social class tend to have more:
Power, Privilege, and Prestige
Socioeconomic status (SES)
Defines the economic and social position of a person in terms of income, wealth,
education, and occupation
Income vs wealth
