AP Environmental Science Review

1. population composed of all individuals that belong to the same species and live in a given area at a particular time 2. community incorporates all of the populations of organisms within a given area 3. population ecolo- gy the study of factors that cause populations to increase or decrease 4. population size the total number of individuals within a defined area at a given time 5. population densi- ty 6. population distriu- tion the number of individuals per unit area (or volume for aquatic organisms) at a given time a description of how individuals are distributed with re- spect to one another 7. sex ration the ratio of males to females 8. age structure a description of how many individuals fit into particular age categories 9. density-depen- dent factors influences an individual's probability of survival and re- production in a manner that depends on the size of the population 10. limiting resource a resource that a population cannot live without and which occurs in quantities lower than the population would require to increase in size 11. carrying capacity; k 12. Density-indepen- dent factors 13. growth rate population growth slowed as population size increased because there was a limit to how many individuals the food supply could sustain have the same effect on an individuals probability of survival and amount of reproduction at any population size 14. intrinsic growth rate; r 15. exponential growth model 16. logistic growth model the number of offspring an individual can produce in a given time period, minus the deaths of the individual or offspring during the same period under ideal conditions, with unlimited resources avail- able, every population has a particular maximum poten- tial for growth tells us that, under ideal conditions, the future size of the population depends on the current size of the popula- tion, the intrinsic rate of the population, and the amount of time over which the population grows describes a population whose growth is initially expo- nential, but slows as the population approaches the carrying capacity of the environment 17. overshoot when the population becomes larger than the spring carrying capacity 18. Die-off population crash usually experienced after the over- shoot of the carrying capacity 19. k-selected species species that have a low intrinsic growth rate, which causes their populations to increase slowly until they reach the carrying capacity of the environment 20. r-selected species species that have a high intrinsic growth rate because they reproduce often and produce large numbers of offspring 21. survivorship curves graphs of distinct patterns of survival over time 22. corridors strips of habitat that connect separated populations that the animal travels across 23. metapopulations a group of spatially distinct populations that are connect- ed by occasional movements of individuals between them 24. community ecolo- gy the study of species interactions, which determine the survival of a species in a habitat 25. competition the struggle of individuals to obtain a limiting resource 26. competitive exclu- sion principle 27. resource partition- ing states that two species competing for the same limiting resource cannot coexist where two species divide a resource based on differ- ences in the species' behavior or morphology 28. predation refers to the use of one species as a resource by another species 29. true predators typically kill their prey and consume most of what they kill 30. herbivores consumes plants as prey 31. parasites live on or in the organisms they consume 32. parasitoids organisms that lay eggs inside other organims 33. mutualism benefits two interacting species by increasing both species' chances of survival or reproduction 34. commensalism a type of relationship in which one species benefits but the other is neither harmed nor helped 35. symbiotic rela- tionship the relationship of two species that live in close associ- ation with each other 36. keystone species a species that plays a role in its community 37. predator-mediat- ed competition 38. ecosystem engi- neers competition in which a predator is instrumental in re- ducing the abundance of a superior competitor, allowing inferior competitors to persist species that create or maintain habitat for other species 39. ecological suc- cession 40. primary succes- sion 41. secondary suc- cession the predictable replacement of one group of species by another group of species over time occurs on surfaces that are intially devoid of soil occurs in areas that have been disturbed but have not lost their soil 42. pioneer species organisms that have the ability to colonize new areas rapidly and grow well in full sunshine 43. theory of island biogeography demonstrates the dual importance of habitat size and distance in determining species richness 44. Aquifers Permeable layers of rock and sediment that contain groundwater in many small spaces. 45. Unconfined Aquifer Water can flow easily in and out of the aquifer. Porous rock covered by soil 46. Confined Aquifer Aquifers covered by an impermeable and confining layer impeding water flow in or out. 47. Water Table Uppermost aquifer layer where water fully saturates the rock or soil. 48. Groundwater Recharge Water from precipitation percolates through soil and into aquifer. If confined, can't recharge. 49. Springs Water from some aquifers naturally comes up, natural source of freshwater 50. Artesian Wells Drilled hole in a confined aquifer releases pressure and pushes water up. 51. Cone of Depres- sion Area where there's no longer any groundwater, caused by well overuse, eventually will go dry. 52. Saltwater intru- sion Lessened pressure from over-pumping so salt water infiltrates and makes well water salty. 53. Floodplain Land adjacent to river where excess water spreads onto. 54. Oligotrophic Lakes with low productivity because of little nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen. 55. Mesotrophic Lakes with moderate levels of productivity 56. Eutrophic Lakes with high levels of productivity 57. Impermeable Sur- faces Pavement, buildings, etc. Doesn't allow water penetra- tion, water then runs into sewers and streams. Excess water causes floods. 58. Levee Enlarged bank on each side of river to prevent flooding 59. Dikes Similar to levees but to prevent ocean waters from flood- ing coasts that are under sea level. 60. Dam Barrier that runs across a river/stream to control water flow 61. Reservoir Large body of water stored behind a dam. Held for con- sumption, generating electricity, flood control, or recre- ation. 62. Fish Ladders Sets of stairs with water flowing over them to have fish migrate despite dams. 63. Aqueducts Canals or ditches used to carry water between locations. Transports water to dry areas. 64. Desalination Removes salt from salt water to make fresh water. 65. Distillation Desalination method. Seawater flows in, heated to cre- ate steam, cool seawater in condensing coil causes steam to condense. Brine and fresh water then flows out. 66. Reverse Osmosis Desalination method. Seawater flows in, pressure ap- plied, water goes through semipermeable membrane, salt can't. Water and brine flows out. 67. Hydroponic Agri- culture 68. biogeochemical cycle Cultivation under greenhouse conditions with roots in nutrient rich solution, and not soil. The circulation of matter through the biosphere. 69. Water Cycle The continual movement of water between Earth's at- mosphere, oceans, and land surface through evapora- tion, condensation, and precipitation. 70. Carbon Cycle The series of processes by which carbon compounds are interconverted in the environment. This involves the incorporation of carbon dioxide into living tissue by pho- tosynthesis and its return to the atmosphere through respiration, the decay of dead organisms, and the burn- ing of fossil fuels. 71. Nitrogen Cycle The transfer of nitrogen from the atmosphere to the soil, to living organisms, and back to the atmosphere. Light- ning, and nitrogen fixing bacteria transform inorganic nitrogen to organic forms of nitrogen. 72. Phosphorous Cy- cle 73. Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria the cyclic movement of phosphorus in different chemi- cal forms from the environment to organisms and then back to the environment. This cycle does not have an atmospheric component. found on legume roots, turn nitrogen into a usable form, nitrate. 74. Denitrifying Bac- teria Bacteria that convert the nitrates in soil or water to gaseous nitrogen and release it back into the atmos- phere. 75. Evaporation The change of a substance from a liquid to a gas. When liquid water is heated to become a vapor. 76. Condensation The change of state from a gas to a liquid. Water in the vapor form is cooled, and condenses, so the molecules of gas get closer, and form liquid. 77. Precipitation Any form of water that falls from clouds and reaches Earth's surface. 78. Transpiration Evaporation of water from the leaves of a plant. 79. Runoff Part of the water cycle where an excess of water runs down and does not sink into the soil and eventually makes it to the rivers, lakes, and oceans. 80. climate the average weather that occurs in a given region over a long period - typically several decades 81. troposhpere the layer of the atmosphere closest to Earth's surface 82. stratosphere layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere 83. albedo the percentage of incoming sunlight that is reflected from a surface 84. saturation point the maximum amount of water vapor that can be in the air at a given temperature 85. adiabatic cooling the process in which the decrease of atmospheric pres- sure allows rising air to expand in volume and lower it's temperature 86. adiabatic heating the process in which the increase of atmospheric pres- sure allows sinking air to decrease in volume and raise it's temperature 87. Hadley Cell the convection currents that cycle between the equator and 30 degrees N and S 88. intertropical con- vergence zone where the ascending branches of the two Hadley cells converge 89. polar cells similar to Hadley cells; circulates beween 60 degrees N and S and the poles 90. Coriolis Effect the deflection of an objects path due to Earth's rotation 91. gyres large-scale patterns of water circulation 92. upwelling upward movement of water toward the surface 93. thermohaline cir- culation drives the mixing of surface water and deep water 94. el Nino; ENSO periodic changes in winds and ocean currents 95. rain shadow warm, dry air produces arid conditions on the leeward side of a mountain range 96. biomes terrestrial geographic regions that have a particular combination of average annual temperature and annual precipitation and contain distinctive plant growth forms that are adapted to that climate 97. tundra a biome that is cold and treeless, with low-growing veg- etation 98. permafrost an impermeable, permanently frozen layer that prevents water from draining and roots from penetrating 99. boreal forest a biome; are forests made up primarily of coniferous (cone-bearing) evergreen trees that can tolerate cold winters and short growing seasons 100. temperate rainfor- est a biome; moderate temperatures and high precipitation typify this biome 101. temp seasonal for- est 102. shrubland; Chap- arral 103. Temperate Grass- land 104. Tropical Rainfor- est 105. Tropical Season- al Forests; Savan- nahs 106. Subtropical De- sets a biome; are more abundant than temperate rainforests; experience much warmer summers and colder winters than temperate rainforests a biome; is characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters a biome; has the lowest average annual precipitation of any temperate biome; cold, harsh winters and hot, dry summers characterize this biome a biome; are warm and wet, with little seasonal temper- ature variation a biome; are marked by warm temperatures and distinct wet and dry seasons a biome; also known as hot deserts; hot temperatures, extremely dry conditions, and sparse vegetation prevail 107. Littoral Zone is the shallow area of soil and water near the shore where algae and emergent plants such as cattails grow 108. Limnetic Zone open water 109. Phytoplankton floating algae 110. Profundal Zone very deep lakes have a region of water below the limnet- ic zone 111. Benthic Zone the muddy bottom of a lake or bond beneath the limnetic and profundal zones 112. Freshwater Wet- land a biome; aquatic biomes that are submerged or saturat- ed by water for at least part of each year, but shallow enough to support emergent vegetation throughout 113. Salt Marsh a biome; found along the coast in temperate climates; one of the most productive biomes in the world 114. Mangrove Swamps a biome; occur along tropical and subtropical coasts 115. Intertidal Zone the narrow band of coastline between the levels of high tide and low tide 116. Coral Reefs a biome; are found in warm, shallow waters beyond the shoreline, represent Earth's most diverse marine biome 117. Coral Bleaching a phenomenon in which the algae inside the corals die which soon causes the corals to die 118. Photic Zone the upper layer of water that receives enough sunlight to allow photosynthesis 119. Aphotic Zone the deeper layer of water that lacks sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis 120. Chemosythesis process in which bacteria deep in the ocean use the bonds of methane and hydrogen sulfide to generate energy 121. ecosystem diver- sity the measure of the variety of ecosystems within a region 122. species diversity the measure of the variety of species within an ecosys- tem 123. genetic diversity the measure of the variety of genes within a species 124. species richness the number of species in a given area 125. species eveness tells us whether a particular ecosystem is numerically dominated by one species or whether all of its species have similar abundances 126. phylogenies the branching patterns of evolutionary relationships 127. evolution a change in the genetic composition of a population over time 128. microevolution the evolution below the species level, such as the evo- lution of different varieties of apples or potatoes 129. macroevolution the process in which genetic changes give rise to a new species, genera, family, class, or phyla 130. genes are physical locations on chromosomes within each cell of an organism; determines the range of possible traits that it can pass down to its offspring 131. genotype the complete set of genes in an individual 132. mutation an occasional mistake in the copying process of DNA produces a random change in the genetic code 133. recombination occurs as chromosomes are duplicated during repro- ductive cell division and a piece of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome 134. phenotype the actual set of traits expressed in that individual 135. artificial selection when humans determine which individuals breed, typi- cally with a preconceived set of traits in mind 136. natural selection the environment determines which individuals survive and reproduce 137. fitness an individual's ability to survive and reproduce 138. adaptations traits that improve an individual's fitness 139. genetic drift a change in the genetic composition of a population over time as a result of random mating 140. bottleneck effect a reduction in the genetic diversity of a population caused by a reduction in its size 141. founder effect a change in a population descended from a small num- ber of colonizing individuals 142. geographic isola- tion 143. reproductive iso- lation 144. allopatric specia- tion 145. sympatric specia- tion 146. genetic engineer- ing 147. genetically modi- fied organisms when a subset of individuals from a larger population may colonize a new area of habitat that is physically separated from that of the rest of the population when the geographically separated population becomes so different that even if the physical barrier were re- moved, they could no longer interbreed and produce viable offspring a process of speciation that requires geographic isola- tion the evolution of one species into two species in the absence of geographic isolation techniques in which scientists can now copy genes form a species with some desirable trait and insert these genes into other species organisms that have had their genetic makeup modified by genetic engineering 148. range of tolerance limits to the abiotic conditions they can tolerate 149. fundamental niche the suite of ideal conditions 150. realized niche the range of abiotic and biotic conditions under which a species actually lives 151. species distribu- tion the areas of the world in which the species lives 152. niche generalists organisms that can live in a variety of habitats or feed on a variety of species 153. niche specialists organisms that are specialized to lie in a specific habitat of feed on a small group of species 154. fossils the remains of organisms that have been preserved in rock 155. mass extinction events in which large number of species when extinct over relatively short periods of time 156. sixth mass extinc- tion scientists have predicted/identified a new mass extinc- tion is underway and an estimated 2-25 percent of species will go extinct; it is caused by humans 157. ecosystem a particular location on Earth distinguished by its partic- ular mix of interacting biotic and abiotic components 158. producers; au- totrophs organisms that use the suns's energy to produce usable forms of energy 159. photosynthesis the process in which producers use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose, a form of potential energy that can be used by a wide range of organisms 160. consumers; het- erotrophs 161. primary con- sumers 162. secondary con- sumers 163. tertiary con- sumers are incapable of photosynthesis and must obtain their energy by consuming other organisms heterotrophs that consume producers carnivores that eat primary consumers carnivores that eat secondary consumers; are pretty rare 164. trophic levels successive levels of organisms consuming one another is called this 165. food chains the sequence of consumption from producers through tertiary consumers 166. food web take into account the complexity of nature, and they illustrate one of the most important concepts of ecology 167. scavengers are carnivores, such as vultures, that consume dead animals 168. detritovores organisms, such as dung beetles, that specialize in breaking down dead tissues and waste products (re- ferred to as detritus) into smaller particles 169. decomposers the fungi and bacteria that complete the breakdown process by recycling the nutrients from dead tissues and wastes back into the ecosystem 170. gross primary pro- ductivity; GPP 171. net primary pro- ductivity; NPP the process in which scientists look at the total amount of solar energy that the producers in an ecosystem capture via photosynthesis over a given amount of time the energy captured minus the energy respired by pro- ducers 172. biomass the total mass of all living matter in a specific area 173. standing crop the amount of biomass present in an ecosystem at a particular time 174. ecological effi- ciency the proportion of consumed energy that can be passed from one trophic level to another 175. trophic pyramid represents the distribution of biomass along trophic lev- els 176. biosphere the region of our planet where life resides 177. biogeochemical cycles the movement of matter within and between ecosystems 178. hydroglogic cycle the movement of water through the bioshpere 179. transpiration a process in which plants release water from their leaves into the atmosphere 180. evaptranspiration the combined amount of evaporation and traspiration 181. runoff water can move as this across the surface of the land and into streams/rivers eventually reaching the ocean 182. macronutrients six key elements that organisms need in relatively large amounts 183. limiting nutrient a nutrient an organism needs because a lack of it results in constrained growth 184. nitrogen fixation a process in which Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere (N2) is converted directly into ammonia (NH3) 185. leaching a process in which nitrates are readily transported through the soil with water 186. disturbance an event caused by a physical, chemical, or biological agents that result in changes in population size or com- munity composition 187. watershed all of the land in a given landscape that drains into a particular stream, river, lake, or wetland 188. resistance a measure of how much a disturbance can affect the flows of energy and matter 189. resilience the rate at which an ecosystem returns to its original state after a disturbance 190. restoration ecolo- gy 191. intermediate dis- turbance hypothe- sis field of science that focuses on studying restoring dam- aged ecosystems states that ecosystems experiencing intermediate levels of disturbance are more divers than those with high or low disturbance levels 192. instrumental value a species that have worth as a tool that can be used to accomplish a goal 193. intrinsic value species that have worth independent of any benefit it may provide to humans 194. provisions goods that humans can use directly 195. Demography the study of human populations and population trends 196. demographers a scientist in the field of demography 197. emigration the movement of people out of a country or region, to settle in another country or region 198. crude birth rate (CBR) 199. Crude Death Rate (CDR) 200. total fertility rate (TFR) 201. replacement-level fertility 202. developed coun- tries 203. developing coun- tries the number of births per year per 1,000 individuals per year the number of deaths per 1,000 individuals per year an estimate of the average number of children that each woman in a population will bear throughout her childbearing years the total fertility rate required to offset the average num- ber of deaths in a population in order to maintain the current population size a country with relatively high levels of industrialization and income a country with relatively low levels of industrialization and income 204. life expectancy the average number of years that an infant born in a particular year in a particular country can be expected to live, given the current average life span and death rate in that country 205. infant mortality the number of deaths of children under 1 year of age per 1,000 live births 206. child mortaility the number of deaths of children under age 5 per 1,000 live births 207. age structure dia- gram 208. population pyra- mid 209. population mo- mentum 210. theory of demo- graphic transition a diagram that shows the number of individuals within each age category, typically expressed for males and females separately an age structure diagram that is widest at the bottom and smallest at the top, typical of developing countries continued population growth that does not slow in re- sponse to growth reduction measures as a country moves from a subsistence economy to industrialization and increased affluence, it undergoes a predictable shift in population growth 211. family planning regulation of the number or spacing of offspring through the use of birth control 212. affluence the state of having plentiful wealth; the possession of money, goods, or property 213. IPAT equation Impact = population x affluence x technology 214. urban area (cen- sus definition) 215. gross domestic product (GDP) an area that contains more than 385 people per square kilometer (1,000 people per square mile) a measure of the value of all products and services produced in a country in a year 216. Hadean Pre Cambrian. Before Archezoic. Rockless, formation of Earth, solidifying crust 217. Holocene Cenozoic. After Pleistocene. Age of Man, human civi- lization, Great Lakes 218. Carboniferous Paleozoic. After Devonian, before Permian. Coal age, coal swamps, limestone, North America shallow seas, southern glaciation. 219. Proterozoic Pre Cambrian. After Archezoic, before Cambrian. Stro- matolites, 1st multicelled, 1st invertebrates, mass ex- tinction, oxygen buildup, supercontinent Radinia 220. Cambrian Paleozoic. Before Ordovician, after Proterozoic. Age of Trilobites, explosion of invertibrate life, Rodinia broke apart, Burgess shale 221. Ordovician Paleozoic. Before Silurian, after Cambrian. Graptolites, 1st fish and fungi, shallow seas 222. Silurian Paleozoic. After Ordovician, before Devonian. Eu- rypterids/sea scorpions, invertebrates, 1st land plants and insects, all landmasses, generally flat. 223. Devonian Paleozoic. After Silurian, before Carboniferous. Age of fish, 1st trees, 1st amphibians, Appalachian Mountains. 224. Permian Paleozoic. After Carboniferous, before Triassic. Age of amphibians, mass extinctions, Pangaea 225. Triassic Mesozoic. After Permian, before Jurassic. Age of Am- monites, 1st dinosaurs, 1st mammals, Pangaea breaks 226. Jurassic Mesozoic. After Triassic, before Cretaceous. Age of rep- tiles, 1st birds, reptiles dominant, North America shallow seas 227. Cretaceous Mesozoic. After Jurassic, before Tertiary. Age of di- nosaurs, KT extinction at end, flowering plants, rocky Mountains, asteroid. 228. Tertiary Cenozoic. After Cretaceous, before Pleistocene. Age of mammals, modern birds, alps, Himalayas, Columbia Plateau 229. Pleistocene Cenozoic. After Teriary, before Holocene. Ice Age, Mega Fauna, 1st humans 230. Archezoic Precambrian. After Hadean, before Proterozoic. Ancient life, one celled 1st life, oldest rocks 231. Veins Dissolved minerals from igneous rocks by water which precipitate into concentrated deposits 232. Oceanic Plates Lie underneath ocean. Dense and rich in iron 233. Subsurface Min- ing Tunnels within mountain where people go in. 234. Placer Mining Process of looking for metals and precious stones in river sediments 235. Mountaintop Re- moval Miners remove entire top of a mountain with explosives 236. Open pit mining Create large pit or hole in ground to mine 237. Mining Spoils/Tail- ings Unwanted waste material created during mining. 238. Strip Mining Minerals close to the surface, remove soil and rock to expose them, then return unwanted waste material. 239. Metals Elements with properties that conduct electricity and heat 240. Crustal Abun- dance Average Concentration of an element in the crust 241. Ores Economically valuable concentrated accumulations of minerals. 242. Soil Degradation Loss of some or all of the ability of soils to support plant growth. 243. Base Saturation Measure of proportion of soil bases to soil acids 244. Cation Exchange Capacity Ability of a soil to absorb and release cations. Deter- mined by clay. Higher is better, but higher decreases porosity, therefore, there's a tradeoff. 245. Texture of soil Determined by percentage of sand, silt, and clay 246. C Horizon Least weathered. Most similar to parent material 247. B Horizon Mineral material, little organic matter 248. E Horizon Leaches organic acids from above layers to B where they accumulate 249. A Horizon Topsoil. Organic material and minerals 250. O Horizon Top layer. Organic horizon and detritus. 251. Parent Material Rock material underlying a soil 252. Soil Mix of geologic and organic components 253. Deposition Accumulation or depositing of eroded material 254. Erosion Physical removal of rock fragments from a landscape or ecosystem 255. Acid Precipitation Acid rain. Sulfur Dioxide reacts with water vapor to form sulfuric acid in rain. 256. Chemical Weath- ering 257. Physical Weather- ing 258. 258. Breakdown of rocks and minerals by chemical reactions and dissolving of a rocks chemical elements. Alters newly exposed/primary minerals to make secondary minerals. Mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals. Water, wind, or temp. Plants or burrowing animals can con- tribute. Exposing more surface area and makes more vulnerable to more erosion. Metamorphic Rocks 259. Sedimentary Rocks Other rick types subjected to high temps and pressure causing physical and chemical changes. Pressure cre- ates distorted bands called foliation. Form by sediments like muds, sands, and gravels com- pressed by overlying sediments. Can be uniform or dif- ferent. Contains the most fossils. 260. Fractures Cracks caused by stress after cooling 261. Extrusive Igneous Rock Magma cools on surface, cools rapidly, minerals don't separate 262. Intrusive Igneous Cools inside Earth underground. Many colors, cools slowly, minerals separate. 263. Igneous Rocks Forms directly from magma. Classified by composition and mode of formation 264. Minerals Solid, Crystalline, Specific chemical structure, certain formations, uniform 265. Rock Cycle Constant formation and destruction of rock. 266. Richter Scale Measure of ground movement in an earthquake. Loga- rithmic scale. 267. Epicenter Exact point on Earth's surface directly above where rock ruptures 268. Seismic Activity Areas with earthquakes and fault activity 269. Earthquakes Rocks of the lithosphere rupture unexpectedly along a fault. Common in fault zones. 270. Fault Zones Large expanses of rock where movement had occurred where plates meet. 271. Fault Fracture in rock across which there is movement 272. Transform Fault Boundary 273. Convergent Plate Boundaries 274. Divergent Plate Boundaries Plates move sideways past each other. Plates move towards one another. Continental + Con- tinental= Mountains. Oceanic goes under land, forms mountains and volcanos. Oceanic goes under other oceanic. Magma pushes up and out, making new rocks and bringing copper, lead, and silver, however it is deep under ocean. 275. Volcano Vent in Earth's surface. Emits ash, gas, and molten lava. Can be caused by hotspots or convergent plates. 276. Subduction Process of one plate passing under another. 277. Seafloor Spread- ing Oceanic plate meet continental. Oceanic pulled under continental. As other plates move apart, rising magma forms new seafloor crust. 278. Continental Plates Lie beneath landmasses. Contains more silicon dioxide. Plates less dense than oceanic. 279. Tectonic cycle Sum of the processes that build up and break up lithos- phere 280. Theory of Plate Tectonics Earth's lithosphere is divided into plates, most of which are in constant motion 281. Hot Spots Places where molten material from the mantle reaches lithosphere. Causes volcanoes. Also helps create con- vection cells 282. Lithosphere Solid upper mantle and crust. Overlaps with upper man- tle. Made of plates with thin layer of soil. 283. Asthenosphere Outer part of mantle. Made of semi-molten, ductile rock. 284. Magma Molten rock in mantle 285. Core 1st and innermost layer. Split into inner and outer. Inner is solid, outer liquid. Made of nickel and iron. 286. Mantle Molten rock that slowly circulates in convection cells. 2nd layer from center. 287. Undernutrition The condition in which not enough calories are ingested to maintain health. 288. Malnourished Having a diet that lacks the correct balance of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. 289. Food Security A condition in which people have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for an active and healthy life. 290. Food Insecurity A condition in which people do not have adequate ac- cess to food. 291. Famine The condition in which food insecurity is so extreme that large numbers of deaths occur in a given area over a relatively short period. 292. Anemia A deficiency of iron. 293. Overnutrition Ingestion of too many calories and improper foods. 294. Meat Livestock or poultry consumed as food 295. Industrial Agricul- ture/ Agribusiness Agriculture that applies the techniques of mechanization and standardization. 296. Energy Subsidy The energy input per calorie of food produced. 297. Green Revolution A shift in agricultural practices in the twentieth century that included new management techniques, mechaniza- tion, fertilization, irrigation, and improved crop varieties, and resulted in increased food output 298. 298. Economies of Scale The observation that average costs of production fall as output increases. 299. Waterlogging A form of soil degradation that occurs when soil remains under water for prolonged periods. 300. Salinization A form of soil degradation that occurs when the small amount of salts in irrigation water becomes highly con- centrated on the soil surface through evaporation. 301. Organic Fertilizers Fertilizer composed of organic matter from plants and animals. 302. Synthetic/ Inor- ganic Fertilizers Fertilizer produced commercially, normally with the use of fossil fuels 303. Monocropping An agricultural method that utilizes large plantings of a single species or variety. 304. Pesticides A substance, either natural or synthetic, that kills or controls organisms that people consider pests. 305. Insecticides A pesticide that targets species of insects and other invertebrates 306. Herbicides A pesticide that targets plant species that compete with crops. 307. Broad-Spectrum pesticide 308. Selective pesti- cide 309. Persistent pesti- cide A pesticide that kills many difierent types of pests. A pesticide that targets a narrower range of organisms. A pesticide that remains in the environment for a long time. 310. Bioaccumulation An increased concentration of a chemical within an or- ganism over time 311. Non-persistent pesticide 312. Resistant pesti- cide 313. Pesticide Tread- mill 314. Conventional Agriculture 315. Shifting Agricul- ture A pesticide that breaks down rapidly, usually in weeks or months. An individual that survives a pesticide application. A cycle of pesticide development, followed by pest re- sistance, followed by new pesticide development Agriculture that applies the techniques of mechanization and standardization. An agricultural method in which land is cleared and used for a few years until the soil is depleted of nutrients. 316. Desertification The transformation of arable, productive land to desert or unproductive land due to climate change or destruc- tive land use. 317. Nomadic Grazing Feeding herds of animals by moving them to seasonally productive feeding grounds, often over long distances. 318. Sustainable Agri- culture Agriculture that fulfills the need for food and fiber while enhancing the quality of the soil, minimizing the use of nonrenewable resources, and allowing economic viabil- ity for the farmer. 319. Intercropping An agricultural method in which two or more crop species are planted in the same field at the same time to promote a synergistic interaction. 320. Crop Rotation An agricultural technique in which crop species in a field are alternated from season to season. 321. Agroforestry An agricultural technique in which trees and vegetables are intercropped 322. Contour Plowing An agricultural technique in which plowing and harvest- ing are done parallel to the topographic contours of the land 323. No-Till Agriculture An agricultural method in which farmers do not turn the soil between seasons, used as a means of reducing erosion 324. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 325. Organic Agricul- ture 326. Concentrated Ani- mal Feeding Oper- ations (CAFO) An agricultural practice that uses a variety of techniques designed to minimize pesticide inputs Production of crops with the goal of improving the soil each year without the use of synthetic pesticides or fertilizers A large indoor or outdoor structure used to raise animals at very high densities 327. Fishery A commercially harvestable population of fish within a particular ecological region 328. Fishery Collapse The decline of a fish population by 90 percent or more. 329. Bycatch The unintentional catch of nontarget species while fish- ing. 330. Individual Trans- ferable Quotas (ITQ) A fishery management program in which individual fish- ers are given a total allowable catch of fish in a season that they can either catch or sell. 331. Aquaculture Farming aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, and seaweeds. 332. Annual A plant that lives only one season 333. Perennial A plant that lives for multiple years. 334. biological diversi- ty or biodiversity the variety of the earth's species, the genes they con- tain, the ecosystems in which they live, and the ecosys- tem processes such as energy flow and nutrient cycling that sustain all life vital renewable resource 335. True the identified species include almost a million species of insects, 270, 000 plant species, and 45, 000 vertebrate animal species 336. species diversity number of different species a community contains com- bined with the relative abundance of individuals within each of those species 337. genetic diversity variety of genetic material within a species or population 338. ecosystem biodi- versity 339. functional biodi- versity 340. biological evolu- tion variety of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems found in an area or on the earth the biological and chemical processes such as energy flow and matter recycling needed for the survival of species communities, and ecosystems the process whereby earth's life changes over time through changes in the genes of populations 341. natural selection mechanism for biological evolution occurs when some individuals of a population have ge- netically based traits that enhance their ability to survive and produce offspring with the same traits 342. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selec- tion published in 1859 Charles Darwin's book and its year of publication 343. kingdoms six major groups of species 344. tree of life name of the development of life as an ever-branching tree of species diversity 345. eubacteria, ar- chaebacteria, pro- the six specific groups of species tists, plants, fungi, animals 346. fossils mineralized or petrified replicas of skeletons, bones, teeth, shells, leaves, and seeds, or impressions of such items found in rocks 347. fossil record cumulative body of fossils found 348. paleontologist career that tries to reconstruct the development of life with the little fossil evidence 349. populations what evolve by becoming genetically different 350. genetic variablity first step in process of biological evolution occurs through mutations 351. mutations random changes in the structure or number of DNA molecules in a cell that can be inherited by offspring 352. natural selection second step in the process of biological evolution genes mutate, individuals are selected, and populations evolve that are better adapted to survive and reproduce under existing environmental condidtions 353. adaptation or adaptive trait any heritable trait that enables an individual organism to survive through natural selection and to reproduce more than other individuals under prevailing environmental conditions 354. heritable able to be passed from one generation to another 355. differential repro- duction enables individuals with the trait to leave more offspring than other members of the population leave 356. genetic resistance ability of one or more organisms in a population to tolerate a chemical designed to kill it 357. adapt, migrate, or become extinct 358. strong opposable thumbs, walk up- right, and complex brain 359. 2 limits to natural selection 3 possible futures for a population of a species when environmental conditions change 3 adaptations that humans had to make us successful 1) a change in environmental conditions can lead to such an adaptation only for genetic traits already pre- sent in a population's gene pool or for traits resulting from mutations 2) even if a beneficial heritable trait is present in a pop- ulation, the population's ability to adapt may be limited by its reproductive capacity 360. fitness measure of reproductive success, not strength 361. tectonic plates huge flows of molten rock within the earth's interior break its surface into a series of gigantic solid plates called 362. 2 main effects of the process of the formation of tec- tonic plates process of formation of tectonic plates has two main effects: 1) the location of continents and oceanic basins greatly influence the earth's climate and thus help determine where plants and animals can live 2) the movement of continents has allowed species to move, adapt to new environments, and form new species through natural selection 363. earthquakes can affect biological evolution by causing fissures in the earth's crust that can separate and isolate populations of species 364. volcanic eruptions can affect biological evolution by destroying habitats and reducing or wiping out populations of species 365. speciation when two species arise from one from natural selection for sexually reproducing species, a new species is formed when some members of a population have evolved to the point where they can no longer breed with other members to produce fertile offspring 366. geographic isola- tion and reproduc- tive isolation 367. geographic isola- tion 368. reproductive iso- lation 2 phases of speciation occurs when different groups of the same population of a species become physically isolated from one another for long periods (physical barrier in way or when few individuals are carried to a new area by wind or flowing water) mutation and change by natural selection operate inde- pendently in gene pools of geographically isolated pop- ulations. If the process continues long enough, mem- bers of the geographically and reproductively isolated populations may become so different in genetic makeup that they cannot produce live, fertile offspring if they are to be rejoined 369. extinction when an entire species ceases to exist 370. endemic species species that are found in only one area; especially vul- nerable to extinction 371. background ex- tinction when species disappear at a low rate 372. mass extinction significant rise in extinction rates above the background level 373. species richness number of different species a community contains 374. species evenness 375. geographical loca- tion relative abundance of individuals within each of the species in a community species diversity of communities vary with -species richness is highest in tropics and decline as move from equator towards the poles 376. true more diverse ecosystem = more productive ecosystem with a greater variety of producer species, an ecosystem will produce more plant biomass, in turn supporting a greater variety of consumer species greater species richness and productivity will make an ecosystem more stable or sustainable greater species richness and accompanying web of feeding and biotic interactions in an ecosystem, greater its sustainability, or ability to withstand environmental disturbances such as drought or insect infestations a complex ecosystem with many different species and the resulting variety of feeding paths has more ways to respond to most environmental stresses 377. ecological niche each specie's distinct role played in the ecosystems where it is found; pattern of living 378. generalist species species that have broad niches; can live in many differ- ent places, eat a variety of foods, and often tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions 379. specialist species species that have narrow niches; can live in only one type of habitat, use one or few types of food, and toler- ate a narrow range of climatic and other environmental condition 380. native, nonna- tive, indicator, key- the 5 specific roles played in an ecoystems stone, and founda- tion species 381. native species those species that normally live and thrive in a particular ecosystem 382. nonnative species species that migrate into or are deliberately or acciden- tally introduced into an ecosystem also called invasive, alien, or exotic species 383. indicator species species that provide early warnings of damage to a community or an ecosystem 384. habitat loss and fragmenta- tion, prolonged drought, pollution, increases in UV ra- diation, parasites, viral and fungal diseases, climate change, overhunt- ing, and natur- al immigration of, or deliberate intro- duction of, nonna- tive predators and competitors causes to explain amphibian decline 385. keystone species species that have a large effect on the types and abun- dances of other species in an ecosystem 386. foundation species 387. Municipal Solid Waste species that play a major role in shaping communities by creating and enhancing their habitats in ways that benefit other species MSW. Refuse from households, small businesses, and hospitals. 388. Waste Stream Flow of solid waste that is recycled, incinerated, placed in a solid waste landfill, or disposed of in another way. 389. Three Rs Reduce, Reuse, Recycle 390. Source Reduction Seeks to reduce waste by reducing in the early stages of design and manufacture the use of materials destined to become MSW. 391. Reuse Allowing a material to cycle through a system longer by reusing it. 392. Recycling Process by which materials destined to be MSW are collected, turned back into raw materials to make new objects. 393. Closed Loop Re- cycling Recycling of a product into the same product. 394. Compost Organic matter that has decomposed under controlled conditions to produce an organic rich material that en- hances soil structure, cation exchange capacity, and fertility. Waste dumped into tipping area, compostable and non- compostable materials are separated, noncompostable material is removed to landfill, compostable material is aerated and turned 1+ tines for a period of a month to a year, composted material is allowed to cure, finished compost is transported for use. 395. Sanitary Landfills Ground facilities to hold MSW with as little contamina- tion as possible. Solid waste transported to landfill, waste compacted by a specialized machine, leachate collection system removes water and contaminants and carries them to waste water treatment plant, landfill is capped and cov- ered with soil and then planted with vegetation, methane produced in closed cells is extracted and either burned off or collected for use as fuel. 396. Tipping Fee Fee for dumping in landfill because of tremendous cost of initial build. 397. Siting Designating a location for a landfill. 398. NIMBY Not In My Backyard attitude. People don't want things like landfills to be put where they live. 399. Incineration Process of burning waste materials to reduce their vol- ume and mas and sometimes to generate electricity and heat. Waste dumped into refuse bunker, crane moves mate- rial from bunker to hopper, waste burned in incinera- tion chamber, ash is collected and removed from plant, baghouse filter helps filter clean air before its released through chimney, heat energy can be used to create steam and generate electricity. 400. Ash Residual nonorganic material that does not combust during incineration. 401. Bottom ash Residue collected underneath the furnace. 402. Fly Ash Residue collected beyond the furnace. 403. Waste to Energy When heat generated by incineration is used rather than released to atmosphere. 404. Superfund CERCLA. Imposes tax on chemical and petroleum in- dustries. Revenue from the tax is used to fund the cleanup of abandoned and nonoperating hazardous waste sites where there is no responsible party. 405. Brownfields Contaminated industrial and commercial land that didn't make it into Superfund. Need environmental cleanup before they can be redeveloped or expanded. 406. Life Cycle Important systems tool that looks at materials used and released throughout entire lifetime of the product. 407. Integrated Waste Management Employs multiple waste reduction strategies. Changes in packing design, manufacturing practices, in purchas- ing habits, increased reuse, backyard composting, re- covery for recycling, composing. 408. Nonrenewable An energy source with a finite supply, primarily the fossil fuels and nuclear fuels 409. Potentially Renew- able An energy source that can be regenerated indefinitely as long as it is not overharvested 410. Nondepletable An energy source that cannot be used up 411. Renewable In energy management, an energy source that is either potentially renewable or nondepletable 412. Energy Conserva- tion 413. Tiered Rate Sys- tem The implementation of methods to use less energy A billing system used by some electric companies in which customers pay higher rates as their use goes up 414. Peak Demand The greatest quantity of energy used at any one time 415. Passive Solar De- sign Construction designed to take advantage of solar radi- ation without active technology 416. Thermal Inertia The ability of a material to maintain its temperature 417. Biofuels Liquid fuels created from processed or refined biomass 418. Modern Carbon Carbon in biomass that was recently in the atmosphere 419. Fossil Carbon Carbon in fossil fuels 420. Net Removal The process of removing more than is replaced by growth, typically used when referring to carbon 421. Ethanol Alcohol made by converting starches and sugars from plant material into alcohol and CO2 422. Biodiesel A diesel substitute produced by extracting and chemi- cally altering oil from plants 423. Flex-Fuel Vehicles A vehicle that runs on either gasoline or ethanol 424. Hydroelectricity Generated by the pressure of falling water 425. Water Impound- ment 426. Run-of-the-River Hydroelectricity The storage of water in a reservoir behind a dam Hydroelectricity generation in which water is retained behind a low dam or no dam 427. Tidal Energy Energy that comes from the movement of water driven by the gravitational pull of the Moon 428. Siltation The accumulation of sediments, primarily silt, on the bottom of a reservoir 429. Passive Solar Heating 430. Active Solar Ener- gy 431. Photovoltaic Solar Cells 432. Geothermal Ener- gy 433. Ground Source Heat Pumps Using the design of a building to take advantage of solar radiation withous active technology Energy captured from sunlight with intermediate tech- nologies A system of capturing energy from sunlight and convert- ing it directly into electricity Heat energy that comes from the natural radioactive decay of elements deep within Earth A technology that transfers heat from the ground to a building 434. Wind Energy Energy generated from the kinetic energy of moving air 435. Wind Turbine A turbine that converts wind energy into electricity 436. Fuel Cell An electrical-chemical device that converts fuel, such as hydrogen, into an electrical current 437. Electrolysis The application of an electric current to water molecules to split them into hydrogen and oxygen 438. Electrical Grid A network of interconnected transmission lines that joins power plants together and links them with end users of electricity 439. Non-renewable An energy source with a finite supply, primarily the fossil fuels and nuclear fuels 440. Fossil fuels A fuel derived from biological material that became fos- silized millions of years ago 441. Commercial ener- gy sources 442. Subsistence ener- gy sources An energy source that is bought and sold Energy sources gathered by individuals for their own immediate needs 443. Energy Efficiency The ratio of the amount of work done to the total amount of energy introduced to the system 444. Energy carrier Something that can move and deliver energy in a con- venient, usable form to end users 445. Turbine A device with blades that can be turned by water, wind, steam, or exhaust gas from combustion that turns a generator in an electricity-producing plant 446. Electrical grid A network of interconnected transmission lines that joins power plants together and links them with end users of electricity 447. Combined cycle A power plant that uses both exhaust gases and steam turbines to generate electricity 448. Capacity In reference to an electricity-generating plant, the max- imum electrical output 449. Capacity factor The fraction of time a power plant operates in a year 450. Cogeneration The use of a single fuel to generate electricity and to produce heat 451. Coal Solid fuel formed primarily from the remains of trees, ferns, and other plant materials preserved 280 million to 360 million years ago 452. Petroleum A fossil fuel that occurs in underground deposits, com- posed of a liquid mixture of hydrocarbons, water, and sulfur 453. Crude oil Liquid petroleum removed from the ground 454. Exxon Valdez This oil tanker accident in 1989 was the largest oil spill in the United States until 2010: a supertanker carrying 53 million gallons of oil, crashed into a reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Roughly 11 million gallons of oil spilled into the sound. Much of it washed up on shore, coating the coastline and killing hundreds of thousands of birds and thousands of marine mammals 455. Oil Sands Slow-flowing, viscous deposits of bitumen mixed with sand, water, and clay 456. Bitumen A degraded petroleum that forms when petroleum mi- grates to the surface of Earth and is modified by bacte- ria; also called tar or pitch 457. CTL The process of converting solid coal into liquid fuel 458. Energy intensity The energy use per unit of gross domestic product 459. Hubbert Curve A bell-shaped curve representing oil use and projecting both when world oil production will reach a maximum and when we will run out of oil 460. Peak oil The point at which half the total known oil supply is used up 461. Nuclear Fission A nuclear reaction in which a neutron strikes a relatively large atomic nucleus, which then splits into two or more parts, releasing additional neutrons and energy in the form of heat 462. Fuel rods A cylindrical tube that encloses nuclear fuel within a nuclear reactor 463. Control rods A cylindrical device inserted between the fuel rods in a nuclear reactor to absorb excess neutrons and slow or stop the fission reaction 464. Radioactive waste Nuclear fuel that can no longer produce enough heat to be useful in a power plant but continues to emit radioactivity 465. Becquerel Unit that measures the rate at which a sample of ra- dioactive material decays; 1 Bq = decay of 1 atom or nucleus per second 466. Curie A unit of measure for radiation; 1 curie = 37 billion decays per second 467. Nuclear Fusion A reaction that occurs when lighter nuclei are forced together to produce heavier nuclei 468. Nonpoint Sources Diffuse areas that pollute. Farming region, suburban community with many lawns and septic systems, or storm runoff from parking lots. 469. Water Pollution Contamination of streams, lakes, oceans, or groundwa- ter with substances produced by humans. 470. Point sources Distinct locations like a factory, or a sewage treatment plant. 471. Wastewater 472. Oxygen Demand- ing Waste Waste produced by human activities including human sewage from toilets and gray water. Organic matter that enters a body of water and feeds the growth of microbes that are decomposers. Measured in terms of BOD 473. BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand. Amount of oxygen a quantity of water uses over a period of time at a specific temperature. Lower is less polluted. 474. Dead Zones Areas with little oxygen and little life. Can be self-per- petuating with the dying organisms subsequently de- composing and causing continued oxygen demand by microbes. 475. Eutrophication Decomposition of waste water provides an overabun- dance of fertility to a water body. 476. Cultural Eutrophi- cation Anthropogenic eutrophication. 477. Indicator Species Organism that indicates whether or not disease causing pathogens are likely to be present. 478. Fecal Coliform bacteria Generally harmless microorganisms that live in the in- testines of human beings and other animals. E. coli. Found in water when human waste is in it. 479. Septic System Composed of a septic tank and a leach field. Found in individual houses in rural areas. Wastewater held in septic tank where solids settle to bottom as sludge, middle layer is fairly clear water called septage, and floating stuff forms scum layer. Septage moves out of septic tank by gravity into several underground pipes laid out across a lawn below the surface called leach field. Then filtered by soil. 480. Sewage Treatment Plant System Underground pipes carry waste to treatment plants. Large debris filtered out by screens and sent to landfill. Solid Waste/sludge settles to bottom of tank. Bacteria break down organic material to CO2 and inorganic nu- trients and settled particles added to sludge. Sludge thickened by removing water. Thickened sludge taken to landfill, burned, or used for fertilizer. Exposure to chemicals or UV light kills pathogens. Treated water released into river or lake. 481. Manure Lagoons Lare, human-made ponds lined with rubber to prevent manure from leaking into groundwater. Leaks could greatly contaminate. 482. Arsenic Naturally in crust and can dissolve into groundwater, humans breaking up rocks also contributes. 483. Acid Deposition NOx and SO2 convert to sulfuric and nitric acids in atmosphere. React and bond with rain and fall with it. Increased pH can be lethal to some aquatic organisms. 484. PBDEs Flame retardants. Can lead to brain damage, been found in fish, birds, and human breast milk. More re- search needed. 485. Oil Spill Cleanup Methods For surface oil, contain oil within one area with plas- tic barriers and suck off surface. Apply chemicals that help break up the oil making it disperse before it hits shoreline, but chemicals could be toxic to marine life. Tides naturally remove from beaches but oil remaining in rocky crevices will have negative effects. No agreed upon method for cleaning up underwater plumes. 486. Thermal Pollution When human activities cause a substantial change in the temperature of water. 487. Thermal Shock Many species die because a dramatic change in tem- perature puts them outside their natural range of temps. 488. Clean Water Act Maintains and restores the chemical, physical, and bio- logical properties of natural waters. 489. Maximum Con- tainment Levels 490. Leading causes and sources for streams and rivers 491. Leading causes and sources for Lakes, ponds, and reservoirs 492. Leading causes and sources for bays and estuar- ies Max level of one of 77 substances that can exist in a body of water. Bacterial pathogens, habitat alteration, oxygen deple- tion. Agriculture, water diversions, dam construction. Mercury, PCBs, nutrients. Atmospheric deposition, agri- culture. Bacterial pathogens, oxygen depletion, mercury. At- mospheric deposition, municipal discharges including sewage.