1
Learning Theories
- Learning is a process which leads to relatively stable behavioural change
- When we learn, we change the way we see our environment, interpret information
and interact/behave
- Associated with the behaviourist approach and work of Watson, Skinner and
Bandura
- Believed the focus of psychology should be on observable behaviours due to the
subjectivity/untestableness of internal moods/thoughts
- Dominated early 20th century psychological research
4.1 Content
4.1.1 The Main Features of Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
- Classical Conditioning - Learning by association
- Unconditioned Stimulus - Any stimulus producing a natural, unlearned response
- Unconditioned Response - A response that occurs naturally without any form of
learning (a reflex action)
- Conditioned Stimulus - A stimulus that has been associated with an unconditioned
stimulus so that it now produces the same response
- Neutral Stimulus - An environmental stimulus that does not produce a response
without association
- Conditioned Response - A behaviour that us shown in response to a learned stimulus
- Food is a UCS for a cat
- Salivation in response to presentation of food is a UCR
- Sound of opening cat food tin is NS
- When NS and UCS are repeatedly paired, NS becomes CS and UCR becomes CR
- If sound of opening tin is often paired with presentation of food, sound alone
triggers CR
- Stimulus Generalisation - When stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus produce
the conditioned response
- Discrimination - The conditioned response is only produced in response to the
conditioned stimulus and not to similar stimuli
- Cat may salivate when any tin is opened – SG
- Cat may only salivate on hearing a tin open at a certain time of day – D
- Extinction - When a conditioned stimulus gradually loses its association with the
original unconditioned stimulus so becomes a neutral stimulus again
- Spontaneous Recovery - When the conditioned response reappears in a weakened
form in response to the controlled stimulus (the association is never fully forgotten)
- Sound of tin opening without food being presented, cat stops salivating when tin
opens – E
- Sound of tin opening with presentation of food after extinction, cat quickly
associates the two together – SR
, 2
4.1.2 Pavlov (1927) Experiment with Salivation in Dogs
Aim
- To find out if a reflexive behaviour can be produced in new situations through
learning
Procedure
- 35 dogs of a variety of breeds, raised in kennels in the lab – repeated measures
- Placed each dog in a sealed room that didn't allow the dog to see, smell or hear
anything outside
- This prevents other stimuli (extraneous variables) making the dog salivate
- The dog was strapped into a harness to stop it moving about and its mouth was
linked to a tube that drained saliva away into a measuring bottle
- In the Control Condition, Pavlov presented the dog with food (meat powder) through
a hatch - dog salivated
- As an experimental Control, Pavlov presented the dog with the Neutral Stimulus
sound (bell) – dog did not salivate so definitely neutral stimulus
- To condition the dog, Pavlov paired the sound with the presentation of food
- He usually did this 20 times, but it depended on how attentive the dog was
- After it was conditioned, Pavlov presented the dog with the sound but no meat
Results
- Pavlov found that the conditioned dog started to salivate 9 seconds after hearing the
sound and, by 45 seconds, had produced 11 drops of saliva
Conclusion
- Pavlov had discovered Classical Conditioning
- The NS, after being repeatedly paired with an UCS (the meat), turned into a CS,
producing the CR (salivation) all by itself
- Pavlov explains how the brain learns to see the new sound as a "signal" and links the
reflex to it
, 3
- This is how animals in the wild learn to hunt or escape being hunted: they learn to
apply their reflexes to new situations based on experiences they've had before
Evaluation:
- G – Humans have different brains from dogs – much more complex, not motivated
by food all the time
- R – Standardised procedure, carefully documented
- Repeated many times by Pavlov with different dogs and different NS – test-retest
reliability
- A – Inspired Watson to condition Little Albert
- Led to aversion therapy which has had some success at curing addictions but also
used negatively to treat homosexual men
- V – Objective and credible due to high controls – no other stimuli could be causing
results
- Low ecological validity as unusual conditions
- E – Considered unethical today due to conditions of dogs but no guidelines at the
time
- Benefits of research in society outweigh costs of distress experienced by the dogs
Evaluation of Classical Conditioning
Strengths:
- Pavlov influenced Skinner and many other researchers - helped shape our
understanding of human behaviour well into the future
- Scientific as precisely measured and controlled – objective
- Replicable and reliable
- Social control could be positive
Weaknesses:
- Lack ecological validity and application to real life
- Underestimates role of biological factors – genetic differences and instincts
- Based on animal research – application to humans limited, animals cannot reflect on
learning experiences with patience or feelings
- Ethical issues in animal research
- Could allow for others to control behaviour through conditioning – social control
4.1.3 The Main Features of Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
- Operant Conditioning - Learning by consequences - An association is made between
behaviour and its consequence
- Instrumental Learning - The term Edward Thorndike originally gave to the form of
learning where the consequence of a behaviour dictates the further repeating of it
- Law of Effect - Created by Thorndike, suggesting that behaviour with a nice
consequence will lead to repetition of the behaviour and behaviour with an
unpleasant consequence will lead to it being stopped
- If we are punished for a behaviour it is likely that we will not repeat that behaviour
in future and vice versa
Learning Theories
- Learning is a process which leads to relatively stable behavioural change
- When we learn, we change the way we see our environment, interpret information
and interact/behave
- Associated with the behaviourist approach and work of Watson, Skinner and
Bandura
- Believed the focus of psychology should be on observable behaviours due to the
subjectivity/untestableness of internal moods/thoughts
- Dominated early 20th century psychological research
4.1 Content
4.1.1 The Main Features of Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
- Classical Conditioning - Learning by association
- Unconditioned Stimulus - Any stimulus producing a natural, unlearned response
- Unconditioned Response - A response that occurs naturally without any form of
learning (a reflex action)
- Conditioned Stimulus - A stimulus that has been associated with an unconditioned
stimulus so that it now produces the same response
- Neutral Stimulus - An environmental stimulus that does not produce a response
without association
- Conditioned Response - A behaviour that us shown in response to a learned stimulus
- Food is a UCS for a cat
- Salivation in response to presentation of food is a UCR
- Sound of opening cat food tin is NS
- When NS and UCS are repeatedly paired, NS becomes CS and UCR becomes CR
- If sound of opening tin is often paired with presentation of food, sound alone
triggers CR
- Stimulus Generalisation - When stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus produce
the conditioned response
- Discrimination - The conditioned response is only produced in response to the
conditioned stimulus and not to similar stimuli
- Cat may salivate when any tin is opened – SG
- Cat may only salivate on hearing a tin open at a certain time of day – D
- Extinction - When a conditioned stimulus gradually loses its association with the
original unconditioned stimulus so becomes a neutral stimulus again
- Spontaneous Recovery - When the conditioned response reappears in a weakened
form in response to the controlled stimulus (the association is never fully forgotten)
- Sound of tin opening without food being presented, cat stops salivating when tin
opens – E
- Sound of tin opening with presentation of food after extinction, cat quickly
associates the two together – SR
, 2
4.1.2 Pavlov (1927) Experiment with Salivation in Dogs
Aim
- To find out if a reflexive behaviour can be produced in new situations through
learning
Procedure
- 35 dogs of a variety of breeds, raised in kennels in the lab – repeated measures
- Placed each dog in a sealed room that didn't allow the dog to see, smell or hear
anything outside
- This prevents other stimuli (extraneous variables) making the dog salivate
- The dog was strapped into a harness to stop it moving about and its mouth was
linked to a tube that drained saliva away into a measuring bottle
- In the Control Condition, Pavlov presented the dog with food (meat powder) through
a hatch - dog salivated
- As an experimental Control, Pavlov presented the dog with the Neutral Stimulus
sound (bell) – dog did not salivate so definitely neutral stimulus
- To condition the dog, Pavlov paired the sound with the presentation of food
- He usually did this 20 times, but it depended on how attentive the dog was
- After it was conditioned, Pavlov presented the dog with the sound but no meat
Results
- Pavlov found that the conditioned dog started to salivate 9 seconds after hearing the
sound and, by 45 seconds, had produced 11 drops of saliva
Conclusion
- Pavlov had discovered Classical Conditioning
- The NS, after being repeatedly paired with an UCS (the meat), turned into a CS,
producing the CR (salivation) all by itself
- Pavlov explains how the brain learns to see the new sound as a "signal" and links the
reflex to it
, 3
- This is how animals in the wild learn to hunt or escape being hunted: they learn to
apply their reflexes to new situations based on experiences they've had before
Evaluation:
- G – Humans have different brains from dogs – much more complex, not motivated
by food all the time
- R – Standardised procedure, carefully documented
- Repeated many times by Pavlov with different dogs and different NS – test-retest
reliability
- A – Inspired Watson to condition Little Albert
- Led to aversion therapy which has had some success at curing addictions but also
used negatively to treat homosexual men
- V – Objective and credible due to high controls – no other stimuli could be causing
results
- Low ecological validity as unusual conditions
- E – Considered unethical today due to conditions of dogs but no guidelines at the
time
- Benefits of research in society outweigh costs of distress experienced by the dogs
Evaluation of Classical Conditioning
Strengths:
- Pavlov influenced Skinner and many other researchers - helped shape our
understanding of human behaviour well into the future
- Scientific as precisely measured and controlled – objective
- Replicable and reliable
- Social control could be positive
Weaknesses:
- Lack ecological validity and application to real life
- Underestimates role of biological factors – genetic differences and instincts
- Based on animal research – application to humans limited, animals cannot reflect on
learning experiences with patience or feelings
- Ethical issues in animal research
- Could allow for others to control behaviour through conditioning – social control
4.1.3 The Main Features of Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
- Operant Conditioning - Learning by consequences - An association is made between
behaviour and its consequence
- Instrumental Learning - The term Edward Thorndike originally gave to the form of
learning where the consequence of a behaviour dictates the further repeating of it
- Law of Effect - Created by Thorndike, suggesting that behaviour with a nice
consequence will lead to repetition of the behaviour and behaviour with an
unpleasant consequence will lead to it being stopped
- If we are punished for a behaviour it is likely that we will not repeat that behaviour
in future and vice versa
