IOP3702 SUMMARY NOTES

IOP302 – Personnel psychology Study unit 1 – The historical background of industrial psychology  Personnel psychology is concerned with all aspects of the theory of psychology applied to understanding differences between individuals in work settings. Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and the mind. Industrial psychology is a field of specialisation in psychology.  Major fields of industrial psychology: 1. Personnel psychology:  Scientific study of individual differences in work settings.  Personnel psychology represents the overlap between psychology and HR management (HRM).  This is an applied discipline that focuses on individual differences in behaviour and job performance and on methods of scientifically measuring and predicting such differences to enhance the quality of personnel decisions. 2. Organisational psychology:  Focuses on the influence organisations may have on the attitudes and behaviour of their employees.  Organisational psychology is more concerned with social and group influences, culture and climate, and leadership behaviour on the overall effectiveness or performance of the organisation.  Fields of interest: Leadership, group dynamics, conflict, decision-making, communication, motivation, power, organisational culture and climate, organisational change, and organisational development and structure 3. Ergonomics:  Objective of this field is to modify the work environment to be compatible with the characteristics of human beings.  Human-machine interface; interactions between humans and systems 4. Career psychology:  Concerned with counselling employees and assisting them in making career choices.  Core focus is the psychological contract between organisations and employees.  Focuses on areas such as the career development of employees, the meaning of work in people’s lives, individual vocational behaviour across the lifespan, career counselling and guidance, etc. 5. Organisational development:  Concerned with improving or changing organisations to make them more efficient.  Involves the planned, deliberate change in an organisation to resolve a particular problem. The change may involve people, work procedures or technology. 6. Consumer psychology:  Behaviour that consumers display in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of products and services, behaviour that they expect will satisfy their needs.  Looks at the way consumers make decisions to spend their resources on products or services. 7. Employment relations:  Aka labour or industrial relations  Focus is primarily the behavioural dynamics related to the juxtaposition of conflict and common ground in any employment relationship.  Emphasis falls on the collective relationship and trade union-related dynamics are therefore relevant. 8. Cross-cultural industrial psychology:  Looks at similarities and differences in individual psychological and social functioning in various cultures and ethnic groups.  Licensing and certification of psychologists: o The Health Professions Council of SA (HPCSA) is a statutory body, established in terms of the Health Professions Act, which, together with the professional board, is committed to promoting the health of the population, determining standards of professional education and training, and setting and maintaining fair standards of professional practice. o In order safeguard the public and indirectly the professions, registration in terms of the Act is a prerequisite for practising any of the health professions with which the council is concerned. o Registration confers professional status upon a practitioner and therefore the right to practise his chosen profession. o Practitioners enjoy the security of being registered in terms of an Act in the knowledge that no unqualified person may practise the profession. o Mission of the HPCSA: “Protecting the public and guiding the professions” Page 1 of 23 o If any person feels that he has been abused by people who claim to be knowledgeable about the field of industrial psychology or claim to have been registered as an industrial psychologist, a formal complaint can be lodged with the HPCSA. o The council will protect the human rights of practitioners and the public. Any complaint made against a practitioner by any member of the public will be investigated by the council. o All professional and practicing psychologists must be registered with the HPCSA, which through the Professional Board for Psychology controls and applies the laws regarding psychological training and professional actions. o The requirement for registration at the Board for Psychology as a psychometrist, HR counsellor, career counsellor, or employee wellbeing counsellor is a 4-year or honours degree in I/O psychology and a completed approved 6 month practicum. o In order to register as an industrial psychologist with the Professional Board, a master’s degree and a formal internship are required. The duration of the internship is one year. Study unit 2 – Research methods in industrial psychology  The role and use of research in personnel psychology: o Knowledge of research methods makes us better able to find useful solutions to problems rather than merely stumbling across them by chance. o Research can be used to develop new practices, such as a new selection procedure. o Knowledge of research will enable you to evaluate the work of others or new practices or procedures introduced by others before the organisation implements these at a considerable cost and not being convinced of their effectiveness.  The research process: 1. Step 1: Formulating the research question:  The research process begins with the identification of the problem: What question or problem needs to be answered?  Based on the kind of answer that is required, we distinguish between various types of questions: i. Exploratory questions:  Often asked when a relatively new field or area is investigated.  Results can often be used to generate more specific research questions that should be addressed in consecutive studies. ii. Descriptive questions:  Provides a picture of a state of events.  Researchers may describe levels of productivity, numbers of employees who left during the year, average levels of job satisfaction, etc. iii. Predictive questions:  Researchers try to predict which employees will be productive, which ones are likely to leave, and which ones will be dissatisfied.  This info is used to select applicants who will be better employees. iv. Evaluative questions:  Set to determine the quality or effectiveness of a programme, practice or procedure. v. Causal questions:  Question asking why events occur as they do.  Tries to find causes: why production is at a certain level or why employees leave  Variables: i. Independent / predictor variables – variables that are manipulated or controlled by the researcher. ii. Dependent / criterion variable – most often the object of the researcher’s interest. Usually some aspect of behaviour.  Types of research: i. Qualitative research – aims to provide in-depth information and a deeper understanding of behaviour at work. Best kind of research method for discovering underlying motivations, feelings, values, attitudes, and perceptions. ii. Quantitative research – aims to describe or explain a variable or situation. This type of research collects some type of numerical data and uses statistical analysis to answer a given research question. Page 2 of 23 2. Step 2: Choosing an appropriate design for the study:  How do you design a study to answer the question?  A research design is a plan or blueprint of how one intends to conduct the research. Research design can be distinguished from one another in terms of 2 aspects: i. Naturalness of the research setting  Refers to the environment in which the study is conducted.  The natural environment of the organisation is desirable, because we would like to investigate the variable exactly as it occurs. ii. Degree of control that the researcher has  In a natural organisational setting there are a number of other aspects / variables present that do not necessarily form a part of the study.  The perception of fairness is a possible variable in a selection process, apart from the feedback provided. This is called an extraneous variable.  Within quantitative research, there are 3 types of research-design: Non-experimental, experimental, and quasi-experimental.  Within qualitative research, the most common research-designs are: Case study, ethnography (the art and science of describing a group or culture), grounded theory, phenomenological research and narrative research. 3. Step 3: Collecting the data:  How do you measure the information that you need and collect the necessary data in order to answer the research question?  In this stage, there are 3 activities that should be completed: i. The people from whom the data will be collected should be identified. ii. The tools that will be used to collect the data should be selected or developed. iii. The tools should be applied in order to actually collect the data.  In the first step of data collection, a relevant sample must be identified and drawn.  Data gathering techniques: Technique Definition Quantitative / qualitative application Surveys A set of questions that requires an individual to express an opinion or answer, or provide a rating regarding a specific topic. Quan: Closed-ended questions can be asked in a structured questionnaire Qual: Open-ended questions can be asked in a semi-structured or unstructured questionnaire Observation Observes employees in their organisational setting. Quan: Pre-developed checklist to rate existence or frequency of certain behaviours and events Qual: Detailed field notes Interviews One-on-one sessions between an interviewee, typically for the purpose of answering a specific research question. Quan: Structured interview format Qual: Most often used with qualitative studies, where semi-structured or unstructured interview can be used Focus groups Method of data collection in which pre-selected groups of people have a facilitated discussion with the purpose of answering specific research questions Usually used in a qualitative study Archival data Aka documentary sources of info, is material that is readily available, where the data has already been captured in one form or another Quan: archival data would consist of numerical info Qual: archival data would include textual info 4. Step 4: Analysing the data:  How do you analyse the data?  Generic steps for qualitative data analysis: i. Organise and prepare the data by scanning, transcribing or typing the data and arranging it into different types of information ii. Obtain a general sense of the data by reading through it and reflecting on its overall meaning iii. Do a detailed analysis by coding the data (organising into meaningful categories and labelling each category Page 3 of 23 iv. Generate a description of the setting or people as well as categories and identify a small number of themes. v. Convey the findings of the analysis. vi. Make an interpretation of the meaning of the data.  In a quantitative study, statistical analysis is normally used: i. Measures of central tendency: mean, median and mode ii. Measures of variability: iii. Regression iv. Correlation 5. Step 5: Drawing conclusions from research:  How do you draw conclusions from analysing the data?  The findings from one study influence research problems in future studies.  Ethical standards for conducting research in organisations have 4 basic requirements: o No harm should come to an individual as a result of his participation in a research study. o The participant must be fully informed of any potential consequences of his participation (informed consent). o Interviewees must understand that their participation is voluntary o All reasonable measures should be taken to ensure that the anonymity and confidentiality of the data collected are maintained. Researchers who violate these rights, particularly in studies that involve physical or psychological risk, can be subject to professional censure and possible litigation. Study unit 3 – Criteria: standards for decision making  Criteria within the context of personnel selection, placement, performance evaluation, and training are defined as evaluative standards that can be used as yardsticks for measuring employees’ degrees of success on the job. Criteria are often used to measure performance constructs that relate to worker attributes and behaviour that constitute successful performance.  5 steps in development of criteria: 1. Job analysis and / or organisational needs analysis 2. Development of conceptual and actual criteria (measures of actual behaviour relative to expected behaviour, as identified in step 1). 3. Identify criterion dimensions underlying measures of actual behaviour. 4. Develop reliable measures with high construct validity (for each identified element) 5. Determine predictive validity of each predictor for each one of criterion measures  Conceptual vs. actual criteria: o Conceptual criteria are ideas or theoretical constructs that cannot be measured. To make the conceptual criteria measurable, it has to be turned into actual criteria. o Actual criteria can serve as real measures of the conceptual criteria. o The relationship between conceptual and actual criteria can be expressed in terms of:  Relevance  Criterion relevance refers to the degree to which the actual criteria and conceptual criteria coincide. The greater the match between the conceptual and actual criteria, the greater is the criterion relevance.  The usefulness of criteria is evaluated in terms of its judged relevance (i.e. whether the criteria are logically related to the performance domain being measured)  Relevant criteria represent important organisational, team, and individual outcomes such as work-related behaviours, outputs, attitudes, or performance in training, as indicated by a review of information about the job or work.  Deficiency  Criterion deficiency and contamination reduce the usefulness and relevance of criteria.  Criterion deficiency occurs when an actual criterion is missing information that is part of the behaviour one is trying to measure, that is, the criterion falls short of measuring job performance or behaviour perfectly.  Criterion deficiency refers to the extent to which the actual criterion fails to overlap the conceptual criterion.  Contamination  Criteria contamination occurs when an actual or operational criterion includes information (variance) unrelated to the behaviour (the ultimate criterion) one is trying to measure. Page 4 of 23  Criteria contamination can result from extraneous factors that contribute to a worker’s apparent success or failure in a job.  Criteria contamination may be subdivided into 2 distinct parts:  Error – random variation (e.g. due to non-standardised procedures in testing, individual fluctuations in feelings) and cannot correlate with anything except chance alone.  Bias – represents systematic or consistent criterion contamination, and it can correlate with predictor measures. Bias typically presents itself in the following forms:  Bias to knowledge of predictor information – one of the most serious sources of contamination of criterion data, is prior knowledge of or exposure to predictor scores.  Bias in ratings – aka halo effect.  Bias due to group membership – the fact that individuals belong to certain groups may result in bias in terms of hiring or promoting these individuals. In summary, criterion contamination distorts the actual criterion because certain factors are included that don’t belong. Criterion deficiency distorts the actual criterion because certain important dimensions of the conceptual criterion are not included in the actual criterion. Both criterion contamination and criterion deficiency are undesirable in the actual criterion, and together they distort the conceptual criterion. Also referred to as criterion distortion:  Job analysis: o Job analysis refers to the process whereby information about jobs, roles and positions within the organisation is systematically gathered and the skills, abilities and knowledge required for successful performance identified. o A job analysis provides a deeper understanding of individual jobs and their behavioural requirements and, therefore, creates a firm basis on which to make people-related decisions. o The objective of job analysis is to define each job in terms of the behaviours necessary to perform it.  Sources of job information: o Most critical issue in job analysis is the accuracy and completeness of the information about each job. Major sources relied upon to obtain these info:  SME’s – usually the person who is most familiar with the job content  Supervisors  Job analysts  Jobs can be analysed from a task-oriented or a worker-oriented perspective:  Other analytical procedures can also be followed to gain further understanding of a job. These are: o A linkage analysis that unites the 2 basic types of job analysis, namely task-oriented and worker-oriented analysis. Here the relationship between the KSAO and tasks performed is examined. o A “hybrid” job-analysis procedure that looks at both the job functions performed and the human behaviours and attributes. Page 5 of 23 Conceptual criterion Observed criterion Criterion deficiency Criterion contamination Criterion irrelevance Criterion distortion  Types of information to be collected when conducting a job analysis: o Work activities – these activities are divided into:  Task-oriented:  Seeks to understand a job by examining the tasks performed, where after task statements are developed that are concise expressions of tasks performed.  Often specific to a particular job and give little information on the skills or qualities needed to do the job adequately  Worker-oriented:  Seeks to understand a job by examining the human attributes needed to perform it successfully. These human attributes are classified into 4 categories, namely:  Knowledge: specific types of information people need to perform a job  Skills: proficiencies needed to perform a task  Abilities: relatively enduring attributes that are generally stable over time  Other: includes aspects such as personality factors o Work performance o Job context o Machines, tools, equipment, and work aids used o Job-related tangibles and intangibles such as materials processed and services rendered o Personnel requirements  General data collection methods: o Observation  Helps one to understand not only the jobs in question, but work in general.  Works best with jobs involving manual operations, repetitive tasks, or other easily seen activities.  Times selected for observation should be representative of the worker’s routine. o Interviews  Can be open-ended or can involve structured or standardised questions.  Most effective when structured with a specific set of questions based on observations, other analyses of the types of jobs in question, or prior discussions with HR professionals, trainers, or managers.  Concern regarding interview is the fact that any one source of info can be biased. o Critical incidents and job / work diaries  Critical incident technique (CIT) asks SME’s to identify critical aspects of behaviour or performance in a particular job that have led to success or failure.  Job / work diaries require workers and / or supervisors to keep a log of their activities over a prescribed period of time.  Diaries are very time consuming. o Questionnaires / surveys  Advantages: 1) more cost effective since it allows the collection of info from workers simultaneously, 2) survey methods are considered to be more reliable as it is anonymous, 3) responses can be statistically analysed. o Existing data  Results from previous job analysis are usually available.  Job analysis techniques: o Methods providing general information about worker activities: 1. Position analysis questionnaire:  Based on worker-orientated approach  Generalised work behaviours are rated and the instrument has a moderate level of behaviour specificity  Contains 194 items organised into 6 main dimensions: Information input, mental processes, work output, relationships with other persons, job context, and other job-related variables  PAQ regarded as one of the most widely used and thoroughly researched methods of job analysis  Inexpensive & takes relatively little time to use 2. Job structure profile:  Revised version of the PAQ  Includes changes to item content and style  It emphasises its use by a job analyst, rather than the incumbent. 3. Job elements inventory  Designed as alternative to PAQ.  Has a readability level appropriate for an employee with only a tenth-grade education Page 6 of 23 Page 7 of 23 4. Functional job analysis  Designed as a quick method that could be used by the US dept of labour to analyse and compare the characteristics, methods, work requirements, and activities to perform almost all jobs in the US. o Methods providing info about tools and equipment:  Job components inventory:  Developed to take advantage of the PAQ’s strengths while avoiding some of its problems.  Consists of > 400 questions covering 5 major categories: tools & equipment, perceptual & physical requirements, mathematical requirements, communication requirements, and decision-making & responsibility  It is reliable, can differentiate between jobs, can cluster jobs based on their similarity to one another, and unlike PAQ, is affected by the amount of info available to the analyst. o Methods providing info about KSAO’s / competencies: 1. Occupational information network (O*NET):  Automated job classification system that replaces the DOT.  Focuses on cross-job descriptors.  Based on a content model that consists of 5 categories of job descriptors needed for success in an occupation:  Worker requirements  Worker characteristics  Experience requirements  Occupational requirements  Occupation-specific requirements  Major advancement in understanding the nature of work, in large because its developers understood that jobs can be viewed at 4 levels: economic, organisational, occupational, and individual.  Fleishman Job analysis survey:  Taxonomy based job analysis method based on more than 30 years of research  Consists of a comprehensive list of abilities. These can be divided into the broad categories of verbal, cognitive, physical, and sensory or perceptual-motor abilities.  Job adaptability inventory:  132-item inventory which taps the extent to which a job incumbent needs to adapt to situations on the job.  It has 8 dimensions:  Handling emergencies or crisis situations  Handling work stress  Solving problems creatively  Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situations  Learning work tasks, technologies and procedures  Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability  Demonstrating cultural adaptability  Demonstrating physically-orientated adaptability.  Personality-related position requirements form:  Devoted to identifying personality predictors of job performance  Not intended to replace other job analysis devices, but rather to supplement job analysis by examining important personality attributes in jobs. o Computer-based job analysis: 1. Work profiling system:  WPS consists of 3 different questionnaires for the following groups of employees: managerial and professional; service and administrative; manual and technical  The WPS can provide job descriptions, people specifications, assessment methods that can be used to assess candidates for a vacancy, and individual development planner for a job incumbent, a tailored appraisal document for the job, and a person-job match, which can match candidates against the key requirements of the job.  Competency modelling is viewed as an extension rather than replacement of job analysis. Just as job analysis seeks to define jobs and work in terms of the match between required tasks and human attributes, competency modelling seeks to define organisational units in terms of the match between the goals and missions of those units and the competencies required to meet those goals and accomplish those missions.