Word classes:
Lexical words 1. Lexical Verbs
(content words; open set) 2. Nouns
3. Adjectives
4. Adverbs
Grammatical words 1. Pronouns
(function words; closed set) 2. Prepositions*
3. Conjunctions*
4. Articles
5. Auxilary verbs
*= Prepositions: words used before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to show direction, time,
place, location, spatial relationships, or to introduce an object. Eg: in, at, on, of, to.
Conjunctions: parts of speech that connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.
Verbs:
A verb phrase is all verb forms in one clause, so lexical verb + possible auxiliaries.
Verbs can differ in tense, aspect (duration: simple/progressive), voice (passive, active), and mood
(indicative, imperative, subjunctive).
Nouns:
Types of nouns:
- Concrete vs. abstract: car vs. democracy
- Common vs. proper: woman vs. Anna
- Count vs. noncount: house vs. wine
A noun phrase: single noun + associated words. These associated words can be articles, adjectives,
prepositional phrases. A noun phrase can be replaced by a pronoun.
Adjectives:
Words that modify a noun. Bijvoegelijk naamwoord. Can be attributive (interesting book) or
predicative (the book is interesting).
Adverbs:
words that modify a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, clause, preposition of sentence.
Typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, certainty.
Phrases:
Verb phrase: he may have been sleeping / has slept / was sleeping
Noun phrase: a student / a very intelligent student
Adjective phrase: very big / highly intelligent
Prepositional phrase: without his book / on the road
5 verb types:
1. Intransitive verbs: subject / verb only
2. (mono)transitive verbs: Subject/verb/1 complement. Eg: john (subject) / kicked (verb) / the
ball (objects)
3. Linking verbs Subject/ (copula) verb / subject complement 2x
, Linking verbs: appear, be, become, feel, grow, seem, taste, look
4. Ditransitive verbs: subject / verb / indirect object / direct object
John / gave / peter / the ball.
5. Complex-transitive verbs: subject / verb / object / object complement.
Eg. I / thought / him / the best candidate for the job.
So:
Intransitive S–V Jon / is running
Transitive S – V – DO Jon / kicked / the ball
Linking verb S – V – SC The soup / tastes / great
Ditransitive S – V – IO – DO Peter / baked / Mary / a cake
Complex-transitive S – V – DO - OC Melvin / found / his own jokes
/ extremely funny
A: adverbial
If there is a SC there can be no DO
IO is only possible if there is a DO
OC can only be if DO
Only A is free to move, and can precede S
Adverbials are a grammatical function. Words and phrases that can function as adverbials:
- Adverbs therefore
- Prepositional phrases in 1914
- Noun phrases last night
- Clauses whenever there’s a message on our answering machine
Place in sentence:
Initial: adjuncts are scene setting
Medial: adjuncts are neutral
End: adjuncts communicatively prominent
Prepositional phrases are often adverbials, but they can also be necessary. When this is the case,
they are prepositional complements. Eg: the princess turned into a frog / the princess turned.
Sentences: start with capital, end with full stop, must contain at least one main clause, can contain
several subclauses.
A clause is a verb phrase + its complements
Main clauses can stand on their own, while subclauses cannot.
Tense:
Simple present: leaves
Concerns the state of affairs = now. Permanent truths and timeless facts, as well as
present habits. Present tense is often used with time adverbials that indicate the
frequency of habits.
Simple past: left
Remoteness in time, remoteness in requests, and remoteness in factuality (wish).
Concerns a specific point or period in the past + event/action is completely over.
Lexical words 1. Lexical Verbs
(content words; open set) 2. Nouns
3. Adjectives
4. Adverbs
Grammatical words 1. Pronouns
(function words; closed set) 2. Prepositions*
3. Conjunctions*
4. Articles
5. Auxilary verbs
*= Prepositions: words used before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to show direction, time,
place, location, spatial relationships, or to introduce an object. Eg: in, at, on, of, to.
Conjunctions: parts of speech that connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.
Verbs:
A verb phrase is all verb forms in one clause, so lexical verb + possible auxiliaries.
Verbs can differ in tense, aspect (duration: simple/progressive), voice (passive, active), and mood
(indicative, imperative, subjunctive).
Nouns:
Types of nouns:
- Concrete vs. abstract: car vs. democracy
- Common vs. proper: woman vs. Anna
- Count vs. noncount: house vs. wine
A noun phrase: single noun + associated words. These associated words can be articles, adjectives,
prepositional phrases. A noun phrase can be replaced by a pronoun.
Adjectives:
Words that modify a noun. Bijvoegelijk naamwoord. Can be attributive (interesting book) or
predicative (the book is interesting).
Adverbs:
words that modify a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, clause, preposition of sentence.
Typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, certainty.
Phrases:
Verb phrase: he may have been sleeping / has slept / was sleeping
Noun phrase: a student / a very intelligent student
Adjective phrase: very big / highly intelligent
Prepositional phrase: without his book / on the road
5 verb types:
1. Intransitive verbs: subject / verb only
2. (mono)transitive verbs: Subject/verb/1 complement. Eg: john (subject) / kicked (verb) / the
ball (objects)
3. Linking verbs Subject/ (copula) verb / subject complement 2x
, Linking verbs: appear, be, become, feel, grow, seem, taste, look
4. Ditransitive verbs: subject / verb / indirect object / direct object
John / gave / peter / the ball.
5. Complex-transitive verbs: subject / verb / object / object complement.
Eg. I / thought / him / the best candidate for the job.
So:
Intransitive S–V Jon / is running
Transitive S – V – DO Jon / kicked / the ball
Linking verb S – V – SC The soup / tastes / great
Ditransitive S – V – IO – DO Peter / baked / Mary / a cake
Complex-transitive S – V – DO - OC Melvin / found / his own jokes
/ extremely funny
A: adverbial
If there is a SC there can be no DO
IO is only possible if there is a DO
OC can only be if DO
Only A is free to move, and can precede S
Adverbials are a grammatical function. Words and phrases that can function as adverbials:
- Adverbs therefore
- Prepositional phrases in 1914
- Noun phrases last night
- Clauses whenever there’s a message on our answering machine
Place in sentence:
Initial: adjuncts are scene setting
Medial: adjuncts are neutral
End: adjuncts communicatively prominent
Prepositional phrases are often adverbials, but they can also be necessary. When this is the case,
they are prepositional complements. Eg: the princess turned into a frog / the princess turned.
Sentences: start with capital, end with full stop, must contain at least one main clause, can contain
several subclauses.
A clause is a verb phrase + its complements
Main clauses can stand on their own, while subclauses cannot.
Tense:
Simple present: leaves
Concerns the state of affairs = now. Permanent truths and timeless facts, as well as
present habits. Present tense is often used with time adverbials that indicate the
frequency of habits.
Simple past: left
Remoteness in time, remoteness in requests, and remoteness in factuality (wish).
Concerns a specific point or period in the past + event/action is completely over.
