UNIT 8A: PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HUMAN BODY SYSTEM
Pearson BTEC Level 3 National Foundation Diploma in Applied
Science
Qualification
Pearson BTEC Level 3 National Extended Diploma in Applied
Science
Unit number and title Unit 8: Physiology of Human Body Systems
A: Understand the impact of disorders of the musculoskeletal
Learning aim
system and their associated corrective treatments
Assignment title Musculoskeletal disorders
Assessor
Issue date
Hand in deadline
IMPACTS OF DISORDERS OF THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM & THERE CORRECTIVE
TREATMENTS
The Musculoskeletal system [1]
The Musculoskeletal system provides mechanical support for the body as the
skeleton acts as a framework for your body, protects internal organs and allows
movement. The musculoskeletal system is made up of bones, cartilage, skeletal
muscle, joints and connective tissue consisting of tendons and ligaments. The
Central Nervous System (CNS) controls the body’s movement by stimulating
skeletal muscle to contract, the contraction of these muscles moves the bones.
(e.g. when walking muscles such as quadriceps and hamstrings move the bones in
the legs back and forth)
Skeleton Structure [2]
By the time a human has reached adulthood, the skeletal system consists of 206
bones. These bones have different functions and different shapes/designs and
provide support for the body and its shape. The bones must be strong enough to
hold a human's weight yet light enough that a human can walk and run without
extra support.
The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones that can have muscles attached to their
surface and connects to parts of the appendicular skeleton. Its function is to
support and protect vital organs. The Axial skeleton consists of:
- The skull (cranium)
The skull consists of two sections: the cranium that consists of 8 bones (e.g.
Frontal, Parietal and Temporal bones…), and the facial bones consisting of 14
bones (e.g. Mandible, Maxilla and Zygomatic bones). Both cranial and facial bones
are flat bones that are made up of layers of hard bones with a spongy layer
between them. The skull’s cranial flat bones protect the brain in what is called the
Cranium Vault.
- Ossicle
1
,Ossicles are the smallest bones in the human body and are located in the middle ear. The ossicles
function is to transmit signals from the outside environment past the eardrum and into the cochlea
- Hyoid bo
The hyoid bone is a horseshoe-shaped bone located between the chin and the thyroid cartilage called
the midline. Its function is to provide attachment to the muscles of the base of the mouth also helping the
tongue, larynx, epiglottis and pharynx.
- Rib cage
The rib cage consists of 25 bones i.e. 12 pairs of ribs and the sternum. The function of the rib cage is to
protect the lungs, heart and other internal organs from damage.
- Vertebral column
There are 33 vertebrae in the vertebral column, that are split into sections that are fused and not fused.
Unfused vertebrae allow movement and stability to the body such as posture to the spine Fused
vertebrae don’t allow movement, the spine naturally fuses over time.
The appendicular Skeleton consists of: [3]
The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones in the human skeleton that are limbs and limb girdles
connecting limbs (e.g. connecting an arm to the shoulder girdle that co ists of the scapular and clavicle).
Limb girdles also act as a surface that muscles can attach to this allows movement of the shoulders and
arms.
The girdle itself has two important variations:
1 The pectoral girdle
The pectoral girdle connects to the upper limbs and shoulders and consists of the
scapula (shoulder blade) and clavicle (collar bone). (the sections of the upper limbs are:
arm, forearm, wrists and hand.) The clavicle supports the shoulder by allowing a varied
amount of movement. It provides direct contact with the axial skeleton and the pectoral
girdle. The scapula is located at the back of the body with a large surface area to which
muscles can connect.
2 The pelvic girdle
The pelvic girdle attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton and has 3 parts: ilium,
pubis and ischium. These different structures are one complete bone and they are all
large, flattered and irregularly shaped. The female pelvic brim is a different shape from a
mails brim. This is because the act of childbirth needs the female brim to accommodate
a baby's head. The male pelvic brim is narrower and deeper which allows more efficient
movement when walking upright.
Types of bones
In the human body, there are many different shapes of bones that have different
functions. Each has a particular lar shape to perform a particular job. For example, are
found in the limbs (e.g.arms, legs, fingers and toes). They are cylindrical with hard bone
with soft spongy marrow inside. These longer bones are wider at the ends to provide
extra strength for the bones and joints. Long bones also act as levers when the muscles around them
contract. In contrast, short bones e.g. in the wrists and ankles have a similar structure to long bones but
are chunky and smaller, their size gives them a greater movement with the same amount of strength.
In the human body, there are also other types of bones called flat, irregular and sesamoid bones.
- Flat bones
These are made up of layers of flat hard bones that have a spongy layer in between them, their function
is to protect the cranium and the sternum is made of flat bone.
- Irregular bones
2
, Have various forms, some are box-shaped vertebrae that form backbones to make up the spine, these
bones are strong and contain marrow inside bones. Irregular bones are also found in the hip and some
facial bones, the facial bones also contain air cavities to make them lighter.
- Sesamoid bones
A variation of short bones is the small bones found in the tendons where there is high pressure such as
the kneecaps, wrists and ankles.
Bone composition:
Bones are a type of connective tissue called osseous tissue. They support and bind, insulate and protect
the internal organs, reserving fuel and the transportation of substances and minerals around the body.
The bone matrix is made up of organic compounds such as collagen and inorganic materials that are
calcium. Collagen and calcium both affect the bones composition collagen give the bones flexibility and
calcium provides stiffness with this means that bones have a degree of flexibility without breaking and
the stiffness help’s bones not to break by making sure there strong for the pressure that they are under,
without calcium bone would be soft and bendy on the other hand without collagen the bone would be
brittle and break easily.
Haematopoietic stem cells in red bone marrow make blood, red bone marrow is located in the hollow
inside of the bones such as the femur, pelvis and sternum; they are also found in an unborn baby’s
umbilical cord. Chondroblasts makeup and sustain the matrix for cartilage. Chondroblasts are also
responsible for responding to the outside environment and responsible for musculoskeletal degenerative
disorders such as osteoarthritis. After osteoblasts and chondroblasts have secreted the matrix they
become less active and maintain the matrix.
Osteoblasts make up the matrix from the bone, they come from the bone marrow.
Adult bone composition[6][7][8]:
- Hyaline cartilage
Hyaline cartilage covers many joint surfaces such as the epiphysis (which is at the end of bones), areas
between the ribs and sternum, ear lobes, trachea, bronchi, epiglottis, larynx and at the end of the noses.
It contains no blood vessels and no nerves; this means that the cartilage has no sensation of injury when
damaged but has a very slow healing time. Hyaline cartilage is mostly made up of type ii collagen.
- Fibrocartilage
Fibrocatilagehas a mixture of type I and type ii collagen that form dense tendons and connective
ligament tissue. It is located in pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs (between every vertebra) and
mandibular joint (a joint that connects the mandible to your skull).
- Elastic cartilage
Elastic cartilage contains yellow elastic fibres, these bundles of cartilage appear dark under a
microscope. It is found in the larynx and the pinnae (external ear flaps).
How bones are remade[9]:
Bones go through cycles of renewing and remodelling every 10 years. This cycle removes old bone
tissue and adds new bone tissue. Bone remodelling is carried out by osteoclasts and osteoblasts.
Osteoclasts dissolve the bone matrix with an enzyme called acid phosphatase that is located in small
depressions on the bones surface, osteoclasts have up to 200 nuclei although it is more common for
them to have 5-20 nuclei it is strongly suggesting that the functional advantage for the numerous multi
nuclei is to improve its resorption efficiency. Osteoblasts deposit a new bone matrix around themselves
that replaces the cartilage matrix by producing components of bone such as collagen fibres, chondroitin
sulphate, some osteoblasts gets buried in the matrix and become mature then become inactive cells
called osteocytes. The deposition and breaking down is regulated by hormones (produced in the testes
and ovaries) and can be altered and accelerated by an external condition such as how to stress the
bones are exposed to.
3
Pearson BTEC Level 3 National Foundation Diploma in Applied
Science
Qualification
Pearson BTEC Level 3 National Extended Diploma in Applied
Science
Unit number and title Unit 8: Physiology of Human Body Systems
A: Understand the impact of disorders of the musculoskeletal
Learning aim
system and their associated corrective treatments
Assignment title Musculoskeletal disorders
Assessor
Issue date
Hand in deadline
IMPACTS OF DISORDERS OF THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM & THERE CORRECTIVE
TREATMENTS
The Musculoskeletal system [1]
The Musculoskeletal system provides mechanical support for the body as the
skeleton acts as a framework for your body, protects internal organs and allows
movement. The musculoskeletal system is made up of bones, cartilage, skeletal
muscle, joints and connective tissue consisting of tendons and ligaments. The
Central Nervous System (CNS) controls the body’s movement by stimulating
skeletal muscle to contract, the contraction of these muscles moves the bones.
(e.g. when walking muscles such as quadriceps and hamstrings move the bones in
the legs back and forth)
Skeleton Structure [2]
By the time a human has reached adulthood, the skeletal system consists of 206
bones. These bones have different functions and different shapes/designs and
provide support for the body and its shape. The bones must be strong enough to
hold a human's weight yet light enough that a human can walk and run without
extra support.
The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones that can have muscles attached to their
surface and connects to parts of the appendicular skeleton. Its function is to
support and protect vital organs. The Axial skeleton consists of:
- The skull (cranium)
The skull consists of two sections: the cranium that consists of 8 bones (e.g.
Frontal, Parietal and Temporal bones…), and the facial bones consisting of 14
bones (e.g. Mandible, Maxilla and Zygomatic bones). Both cranial and facial bones
are flat bones that are made up of layers of hard bones with a spongy layer
between them. The skull’s cranial flat bones protect the brain in what is called the
Cranium Vault.
- Ossicle
1
,Ossicles are the smallest bones in the human body and are located in the middle ear. The ossicles
function is to transmit signals from the outside environment past the eardrum and into the cochlea
- Hyoid bo
The hyoid bone is a horseshoe-shaped bone located between the chin and the thyroid cartilage called
the midline. Its function is to provide attachment to the muscles of the base of the mouth also helping the
tongue, larynx, epiglottis and pharynx.
- Rib cage
The rib cage consists of 25 bones i.e. 12 pairs of ribs and the sternum. The function of the rib cage is to
protect the lungs, heart and other internal organs from damage.
- Vertebral column
There are 33 vertebrae in the vertebral column, that are split into sections that are fused and not fused.
Unfused vertebrae allow movement and stability to the body such as posture to the spine Fused
vertebrae don’t allow movement, the spine naturally fuses over time.
The appendicular Skeleton consists of: [3]
The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones in the human skeleton that are limbs and limb girdles
connecting limbs (e.g. connecting an arm to the shoulder girdle that co ists of the scapular and clavicle).
Limb girdles also act as a surface that muscles can attach to this allows movement of the shoulders and
arms.
The girdle itself has two important variations:
1 The pectoral girdle
The pectoral girdle connects to the upper limbs and shoulders and consists of the
scapula (shoulder blade) and clavicle (collar bone). (the sections of the upper limbs are:
arm, forearm, wrists and hand.) The clavicle supports the shoulder by allowing a varied
amount of movement. It provides direct contact with the axial skeleton and the pectoral
girdle. The scapula is located at the back of the body with a large surface area to which
muscles can connect.
2 The pelvic girdle
The pelvic girdle attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton and has 3 parts: ilium,
pubis and ischium. These different structures are one complete bone and they are all
large, flattered and irregularly shaped. The female pelvic brim is a different shape from a
mails brim. This is because the act of childbirth needs the female brim to accommodate
a baby's head. The male pelvic brim is narrower and deeper which allows more efficient
movement when walking upright.
Types of bones
In the human body, there are many different shapes of bones that have different
functions. Each has a particular lar shape to perform a particular job. For example, are
found in the limbs (e.g.arms, legs, fingers and toes). They are cylindrical with hard bone
with soft spongy marrow inside. These longer bones are wider at the ends to provide
extra strength for the bones and joints. Long bones also act as levers when the muscles around them
contract. In contrast, short bones e.g. in the wrists and ankles have a similar structure to long bones but
are chunky and smaller, their size gives them a greater movement with the same amount of strength.
In the human body, there are also other types of bones called flat, irregular and sesamoid bones.
- Flat bones
These are made up of layers of flat hard bones that have a spongy layer in between them, their function
is to protect the cranium and the sternum is made of flat bone.
- Irregular bones
2
, Have various forms, some are box-shaped vertebrae that form backbones to make up the spine, these
bones are strong and contain marrow inside bones. Irregular bones are also found in the hip and some
facial bones, the facial bones also contain air cavities to make them lighter.
- Sesamoid bones
A variation of short bones is the small bones found in the tendons where there is high pressure such as
the kneecaps, wrists and ankles.
Bone composition:
Bones are a type of connective tissue called osseous tissue. They support and bind, insulate and protect
the internal organs, reserving fuel and the transportation of substances and minerals around the body.
The bone matrix is made up of organic compounds such as collagen and inorganic materials that are
calcium. Collagen and calcium both affect the bones composition collagen give the bones flexibility and
calcium provides stiffness with this means that bones have a degree of flexibility without breaking and
the stiffness help’s bones not to break by making sure there strong for the pressure that they are under,
without calcium bone would be soft and bendy on the other hand without collagen the bone would be
brittle and break easily.
Haematopoietic stem cells in red bone marrow make blood, red bone marrow is located in the hollow
inside of the bones such as the femur, pelvis and sternum; they are also found in an unborn baby’s
umbilical cord. Chondroblasts makeup and sustain the matrix for cartilage. Chondroblasts are also
responsible for responding to the outside environment and responsible for musculoskeletal degenerative
disorders such as osteoarthritis. After osteoblasts and chondroblasts have secreted the matrix they
become less active and maintain the matrix.
Osteoblasts make up the matrix from the bone, they come from the bone marrow.
Adult bone composition[6][7][8]:
- Hyaline cartilage
Hyaline cartilage covers many joint surfaces such as the epiphysis (which is at the end of bones), areas
between the ribs and sternum, ear lobes, trachea, bronchi, epiglottis, larynx and at the end of the noses.
It contains no blood vessels and no nerves; this means that the cartilage has no sensation of injury when
damaged but has a very slow healing time. Hyaline cartilage is mostly made up of type ii collagen.
- Fibrocartilage
Fibrocatilagehas a mixture of type I and type ii collagen that form dense tendons and connective
ligament tissue. It is located in pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs (between every vertebra) and
mandibular joint (a joint that connects the mandible to your skull).
- Elastic cartilage
Elastic cartilage contains yellow elastic fibres, these bundles of cartilage appear dark under a
microscope. It is found in the larynx and the pinnae (external ear flaps).
How bones are remade[9]:
Bones go through cycles of renewing and remodelling every 10 years. This cycle removes old bone
tissue and adds new bone tissue. Bone remodelling is carried out by osteoclasts and osteoblasts.
Osteoclasts dissolve the bone matrix with an enzyme called acid phosphatase that is located in small
depressions on the bones surface, osteoclasts have up to 200 nuclei although it is more common for
them to have 5-20 nuclei it is strongly suggesting that the functional advantage for the numerous multi
nuclei is to improve its resorption efficiency. Osteoblasts deposit a new bone matrix around themselves
that replaces the cartilage matrix by producing components of bone such as collagen fibres, chondroitin
sulphate, some osteoblasts gets buried in the matrix and become mature then become inactive cells
called osteocytes. The deposition and breaking down is regulated by hormones (produced in the testes
and ovaries) and can be altered and accelerated by an external condition such as how to stress the
bones are exposed to.
3
