THE BASICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH SUMMARY
CHAPTER 1 – Human Inquiry and Science
Research is knowing things = what we know vs. how we know
In general, an assertion must have both logical and empirical support.
Observing scientifically requires being objective, precise, systematic, and reflective.
A theoretical concept is a social phenomenon that is considered relevant to study.
Agreement reality: The things we know as part of the culture around us
Epistemology: The science of knowing
Methodology: The science of finding out
Factors that can both assist and hinder human inquiry:
Tradition
Authority (Relied on heavily by the advertising industry)
Errors in inquiry:
Inaccurate observations
Overgeneralization
Selective observation
Illogical reasoning
A scientific understanding of the world must make sense and correspond with what we
observe.
Scientific theory deals with logic, data collection with observation and data analysis via
patterns and comparison between what is logically expected and what is observed.
Social science = Theory + Data Collection + Data Analysis
A theory is a systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of
life.
,Social regularities can be detected, and their effects can be observed by social scientists.
When these regularities change over time, social scientists can observe and explain these
changes.
The three objections raised in regard of social regularities:
The charge of triviality
o Apparent triviality is not a legitimate objection to any scientific endeavor
What about exceptions?
o Social regularities are probabilistic patterns
o They are no less real simply because some cases don’t fit the pattern
People could interfere
o Interference by people does not happen often enough to seriously threaten
the observation of social regularities.
Attributes are characteristics or qualities that describe an object.
Variables are logical sets of attributes.
Deductive research (general to specific)
Often done with quantitative methods
Nomothetic (patterns)
Inductive research (specific to general)
Often done with qualitative methods
Idiographic (more space for individual cases)
CHAPTER 2 – Paradigms, Theory and Research
A paradigm is a model or framework for observation and understanding which shapes both
what we see and how we understand it.
Whereas theories seek to explain, paradigms provide a way of looking. Paradigms provide
logical frameworks in which theories are created.
Theory functions three ways in research:
1. They prevent our being taken in flukes.
2. They make sense of observed patterns in ways that can suggest other possibilities.
3. They can shape and direct research efforts pointing toward likely discoveries through
empirical observation.
, Anomalies are events that fall outside expected or standard patterns.
SOME SOCIAL SCIENCE PARADIGMS
Macro theory and micro theory
Macro theory deals with large, aggregate entities of society or even whole societies.
o Topics of study include economic classes, international relations etc.
Micro theory deals with issues of social life at the level of individuals or small groups.
o Topics of study include dating behavior, jury deliberations etc.
Early positivism
Scientific truths can be positively verified through empirical observations, and the
logical analysis of what was observed.
Conflict paradigm
Social behavior is the process of conflict: the attempt to dominate others and to
avoid being dominated.
Symbolic interactionism
Most interactions resolve around individuals reaching a common understanding
through language and other symbolic systems.
Ethnomethodology
Methodology of the people. People are continuously trying to make sense of the life
they experience.
Structural functionalism
A social system is made up of parts, each of which contributes to the functioning of
the whole.
Interest convergence is the thesis that majority-group members will only support the
interests of minorities when those actions also support the interests of the majority group.
Conceptualization is the action or process of forming a concept or idea of something
Operationalization is the operations involved in measuring a variable.
A hypothesis is a specified and testable expectation of empirical reality.
CHAPTER 1 – Human Inquiry and Science
Research is knowing things = what we know vs. how we know
In general, an assertion must have both logical and empirical support.
Observing scientifically requires being objective, precise, systematic, and reflective.
A theoretical concept is a social phenomenon that is considered relevant to study.
Agreement reality: The things we know as part of the culture around us
Epistemology: The science of knowing
Methodology: The science of finding out
Factors that can both assist and hinder human inquiry:
Tradition
Authority (Relied on heavily by the advertising industry)
Errors in inquiry:
Inaccurate observations
Overgeneralization
Selective observation
Illogical reasoning
A scientific understanding of the world must make sense and correspond with what we
observe.
Scientific theory deals with logic, data collection with observation and data analysis via
patterns and comparison between what is logically expected and what is observed.
Social science = Theory + Data Collection + Data Analysis
A theory is a systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of
life.
,Social regularities can be detected, and their effects can be observed by social scientists.
When these regularities change over time, social scientists can observe and explain these
changes.
The three objections raised in regard of social regularities:
The charge of triviality
o Apparent triviality is not a legitimate objection to any scientific endeavor
What about exceptions?
o Social regularities are probabilistic patterns
o They are no less real simply because some cases don’t fit the pattern
People could interfere
o Interference by people does not happen often enough to seriously threaten
the observation of social regularities.
Attributes are characteristics or qualities that describe an object.
Variables are logical sets of attributes.
Deductive research (general to specific)
Often done with quantitative methods
Nomothetic (patterns)
Inductive research (specific to general)
Often done with qualitative methods
Idiographic (more space for individual cases)
CHAPTER 2 – Paradigms, Theory and Research
A paradigm is a model or framework for observation and understanding which shapes both
what we see and how we understand it.
Whereas theories seek to explain, paradigms provide a way of looking. Paradigms provide
logical frameworks in which theories are created.
Theory functions three ways in research:
1. They prevent our being taken in flukes.
2. They make sense of observed patterns in ways that can suggest other possibilities.
3. They can shape and direct research efforts pointing toward likely discoveries through
empirical observation.
, Anomalies are events that fall outside expected or standard patterns.
SOME SOCIAL SCIENCE PARADIGMS
Macro theory and micro theory
Macro theory deals with large, aggregate entities of society or even whole societies.
o Topics of study include economic classes, international relations etc.
Micro theory deals with issues of social life at the level of individuals or small groups.
o Topics of study include dating behavior, jury deliberations etc.
Early positivism
Scientific truths can be positively verified through empirical observations, and the
logical analysis of what was observed.
Conflict paradigm
Social behavior is the process of conflict: the attempt to dominate others and to
avoid being dominated.
Symbolic interactionism
Most interactions resolve around individuals reaching a common understanding
through language and other symbolic systems.
Ethnomethodology
Methodology of the people. People are continuously trying to make sense of the life
they experience.
Structural functionalism
A social system is made up of parts, each of which contributes to the functioning of
the whole.
Interest convergence is the thesis that majority-group members will only support the
interests of minorities when those actions also support the interests of the majority group.
Conceptualization is the action or process of forming a concept or idea of something
Operationalization is the operations involved in measuring a variable.
A hypothesis is a specified and testable expectation of empirical reality.
