SWEARING & PAIN TOLERANCE 4
Contents
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 5
Methods.................................................................................................................................... 10
Results ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 20
References ................................................................................................................................ 26
Appendices ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
,SWEARING & PAIN TOLERANCE 5
Abstract
Pain is a highly subjective experience in relation to both sensory and affective aspects,
involving a wide neural network known as the neuromatrix of pain. Swearing is considered
taboo within society and, in addition to evoking a physiological response, produces an
emotional response therefore processes information in similar brain regions as pain;
predominantly the limbic system. Previous research has found swearing to be beneficial
whilst experiencing pain, hypothesising it is due to swearing increased heart rate causing a
hypoalgesic effect, increasing pain tolerance and lowering perceived pain. The current study
explores this interaction further by using a no word condition to form a reference point of
participant pain tolerance, along with a control word, and self-rated least and most offensive
swear words. The 26 participants, aged 18-31, experienced acute thermal pain using the cold
pressor test and their heart rates, latency and perceived pain were measured in each condition.
Results suggested that pain tolerance is not increased when individuals swear as there was no
significant difference across conditions with regards to their perceived pain and latency. But
heart rate differed between baseline and most offensive condition, unexpectedly showing a
decrease in heart rate when swearing.
,SWEARING & PAIN TOLERANCE 6
Swearing is considered taboo within society, it is discouraged in children and
individuals who do swear are often assumed to be lazy, lack education and lack control of
themselves (Jay & Jay, 2015). Despite this, taboo words are commonly used with rates
estimated at 80-90 utterances daily (Jay, 2009) being argued as polite, impolite and neither
(Jay & Janschewitz, 2008). But, there is variation across individuals in what is considered a
taboo word, their uses and differing offensiveness.
There are hundreds of words and phrases considered as taboo which fit into different
categories such as sexual references, ethnic-racial-gender slurs, scatological referents (‘shit’,
‘crap’) and offensive slang (Jay, 2009). Taboo words differ across cultures and languages,
but a clearer distinction is that of taboo expressions, for example ‘fuck’, and person directed
pejoratives - which are both expressive and derogatory such as ‘bitch’ (Croom, 2011). Jay
(2009), acknowledging the many uses of swearing, expresses that overarchingly swear words
are typically lexicon of offensive emotional language. They help express emotions, in both
positive and negative situations, as well as experience them more vividly (Bowers &
Pleydell-Pearce, 2011). Importantly, swear words aid communication of a strong emotional
state without being physical, largely in relation to frustration or anger which accounts for two
thirds of swearing data (Jay, 1999).
Situation is a major consideration in terms of how the swear word is received and its
impact of offence. Jay and Janschewitz (2007) note that the speaker-listener relationship,
social setting, intonation and emphasis affect differing emotional reactions. Swearing can be
used in a humorous manner and conversely amongst friends, also to insult and express pain or
anger. It has been reported that frequency of swearing is greater when in company of the
same gender, but men generally use more offensive words such as ‘motherfucker’ (Jay,
2009).
In relation to offensiveness, euphemisms are typically used as self-censorship to
, SWEARING & PAIN TOLERANCE 7
decrease the offensiveness in awareness of appropriateness of word choice in situations (Jay
& Janschewitz, 2007). For example, although ‘the c-word’ has the same denotation as ‘cunt’,
the connotation is not as significant (Mercury, 1995). Euphemisms do not contain the same
amount of emotional valence and do not exhibit the same amount of autonomic arousal,
indicating linguistic relativity in the processing and expression of swearing (Bowers &
Pleydell-Pearce, 2011).
The autonomic arousal is of interest when looking at levels of swearing in acute
stress, such as pain, as swearing has been found to have a cathartic affect (Pinker, 2007). For
example, in the stressful environment of a healthcare setting, nurses have reported being
sworn at frequently each week. Commonly, the utterances were reported as offensive terms,
but it was suggested it helped to relieve the patients pain and aggression (Stone, McMillian &
Hazelton, 2010).
There is a multitude of research surrounding pain tolerance and perceived pain, such
as gender differences, vocalisations and the presence of others; suggesting a range of
physical, psychological and social influences on pain tolerance. Using nociceptive
stimulation of extreme temperatures to evoke pain, such as the cold pressor test which has the
potential to damage tissue (Dubin & Patatpoutian, 2010), men have shown a higher pain
tolerance than women. But interestingly if participants, both male and female, reported
identifying more with masculine qualities they tended to keep their hand in the ice for longer
(Myers, Tsao, Glover, Kim, Turk & Zeltzer, 2006). But the gender of the experimenter is also
a factor of influence as male pain ratings decreased in the presence of a female experimenter,
whereby female participants reported higher ratings when the experimenter was male (Levine
& De Simone, 1991).
Importantly, vocalisations appear to increase pain tolerance with exclamations, such
as ‘ouch’, being autonomic responses serving communicatively to attract help in addition to
Contents
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 5
Methods.................................................................................................................................... 10
Results ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 20
References ................................................................................................................................ 26
Appendices ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
,SWEARING & PAIN TOLERANCE 5
Abstract
Pain is a highly subjective experience in relation to both sensory and affective aspects,
involving a wide neural network known as the neuromatrix of pain. Swearing is considered
taboo within society and, in addition to evoking a physiological response, produces an
emotional response therefore processes information in similar brain regions as pain;
predominantly the limbic system. Previous research has found swearing to be beneficial
whilst experiencing pain, hypothesising it is due to swearing increased heart rate causing a
hypoalgesic effect, increasing pain tolerance and lowering perceived pain. The current study
explores this interaction further by using a no word condition to form a reference point of
participant pain tolerance, along with a control word, and self-rated least and most offensive
swear words. The 26 participants, aged 18-31, experienced acute thermal pain using the cold
pressor test and their heart rates, latency and perceived pain were measured in each condition.
Results suggested that pain tolerance is not increased when individuals swear as there was no
significant difference across conditions with regards to their perceived pain and latency. But
heart rate differed between baseline and most offensive condition, unexpectedly showing a
decrease in heart rate when swearing.
,SWEARING & PAIN TOLERANCE 6
Swearing is considered taboo within society, it is discouraged in children and
individuals who do swear are often assumed to be lazy, lack education and lack control of
themselves (Jay & Jay, 2015). Despite this, taboo words are commonly used with rates
estimated at 80-90 utterances daily (Jay, 2009) being argued as polite, impolite and neither
(Jay & Janschewitz, 2008). But, there is variation across individuals in what is considered a
taboo word, their uses and differing offensiveness.
There are hundreds of words and phrases considered as taboo which fit into different
categories such as sexual references, ethnic-racial-gender slurs, scatological referents (‘shit’,
‘crap’) and offensive slang (Jay, 2009). Taboo words differ across cultures and languages,
but a clearer distinction is that of taboo expressions, for example ‘fuck’, and person directed
pejoratives - which are both expressive and derogatory such as ‘bitch’ (Croom, 2011). Jay
(2009), acknowledging the many uses of swearing, expresses that overarchingly swear words
are typically lexicon of offensive emotional language. They help express emotions, in both
positive and negative situations, as well as experience them more vividly (Bowers &
Pleydell-Pearce, 2011). Importantly, swear words aid communication of a strong emotional
state without being physical, largely in relation to frustration or anger which accounts for two
thirds of swearing data (Jay, 1999).
Situation is a major consideration in terms of how the swear word is received and its
impact of offence. Jay and Janschewitz (2007) note that the speaker-listener relationship,
social setting, intonation and emphasis affect differing emotional reactions. Swearing can be
used in a humorous manner and conversely amongst friends, also to insult and express pain or
anger. It has been reported that frequency of swearing is greater when in company of the
same gender, but men generally use more offensive words such as ‘motherfucker’ (Jay,
2009).
In relation to offensiveness, euphemisms are typically used as self-censorship to
, SWEARING & PAIN TOLERANCE 7
decrease the offensiveness in awareness of appropriateness of word choice in situations (Jay
& Janschewitz, 2007). For example, although ‘the c-word’ has the same denotation as ‘cunt’,
the connotation is not as significant (Mercury, 1995). Euphemisms do not contain the same
amount of emotional valence and do not exhibit the same amount of autonomic arousal,
indicating linguistic relativity in the processing and expression of swearing (Bowers &
Pleydell-Pearce, 2011).
The autonomic arousal is of interest when looking at levels of swearing in acute
stress, such as pain, as swearing has been found to have a cathartic affect (Pinker, 2007). For
example, in the stressful environment of a healthcare setting, nurses have reported being
sworn at frequently each week. Commonly, the utterances were reported as offensive terms,
but it was suggested it helped to relieve the patients pain and aggression (Stone, McMillian &
Hazelton, 2010).
There is a multitude of research surrounding pain tolerance and perceived pain, such
as gender differences, vocalisations and the presence of others; suggesting a range of
physical, psychological and social influences on pain tolerance. Using nociceptive
stimulation of extreme temperatures to evoke pain, such as the cold pressor test which has the
potential to damage tissue (Dubin & Patatpoutian, 2010), men have shown a higher pain
tolerance than women. But interestingly if participants, both male and female, reported
identifying more with masculine qualities they tended to keep their hand in the ice for longer
(Myers, Tsao, Glover, Kim, Turk & Zeltzer, 2006). But the gender of the experimenter is also
a factor of influence as male pain ratings decreased in the presence of a female experimenter,
whereby female participants reported higher ratings when the experimenter was male (Levine
& De Simone, 1991).
Importantly, vocalisations appear to increase pain tolerance with exclamations, such
as ‘ouch’, being autonomic responses serving communicatively to attract help in addition to
