A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY
SUMMARY ON MEMORY
COMBINED WITH QUESTIONS
AND ANSWERS.
Models of Memory:
Multi-Store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
• Sensory Register: Very brief storage of sensory input (iconic = visual, echoic = auditory).
Duration <1 second.
• Short-Term Memory (STM): Capacity ~7±2 items (Miller), duration 18–30 seconds
(Peterson & Peterson). Coding mainly acoustic (Baddeley).
• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Capacity unlimited, duration potentially lifelong. Coding
mainly semantic (Baddeley).
• Process: Information flows linearly from sensory → STM → LTM if rehearsed.
Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)
• Central Executive: Directs attention, allocates resources.
• Phonological Loop: Deals with auditory information (phonological store + articulatory
rehearsal).
• Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad: Visual and spatial information.
,• Episodic Buffer: Integrates information across stores and links to LTM.
• Evidence: Dual-task studies show separate systems for visual and auditory processing.
Types of Long-Term Memory
• Episodic: Personal experiences, time-stamped, conscious recall.
• Semantic: Knowledge of facts, concepts, meanings.
• Procedural: Skills and actions, often unconscious (e.g., riding a bike).
Explanations for Forgetting
• Interference Theory:
• Proactive interference = old memories disrupt new.
• Retroactive interference = new memories disrupt old.
• Retrieval Failure (Cue-Dependent Forgetting):
• Encoding Specificity Principle (Tulving): recall better when cues present at encoding are
available at retrieval.
• Context-dependent (environmental cues).
• State-dependent (internal cues, e.g., mood).
Eyewitness Testimony (EWT)
, • Factors Affecting Accuracy:
• Misleading information (Loftus & Palmer, 1974 – car crash study).
• Leading questions and post-event discussion.
• Anxiety/stress: Yerkes-Dodson law suggests moderate anxiety improves recall, high
anxiety impairs it.
• Cognitive Interview (CI):
• Context reinstatement, report everything, change perspective, change order.
• Improves accuracy of recall compared to standard police interviews.
Key Studies
• Baddeley (1966): STM = acoustic coding, LTM = semantic coding.
• Miller (1956): STM capacity = 7±2 items.
• Peterson & Peterson (1959): STM duration = 18–30 seconds.
• Loftus & Palmer (1974): Leading questions distort EWT.
• Tulving (1985): Distinction between episodic and semantic memory.
SUMMARY ON MEMORY
COMBINED WITH QUESTIONS
AND ANSWERS.
Models of Memory:
Multi-Store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
• Sensory Register: Very brief storage of sensory input (iconic = visual, echoic = auditory).
Duration <1 second.
• Short-Term Memory (STM): Capacity ~7±2 items (Miller), duration 18–30 seconds
(Peterson & Peterson). Coding mainly acoustic (Baddeley).
• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Capacity unlimited, duration potentially lifelong. Coding
mainly semantic (Baddeley).
• Process: Information flows linearly from sensory → STM → LTM if rehearsed.
Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)
• Central Executive: Directs attention, allocates resources.
• Phonological Loop: Deals with auditory information (phonological store + articulatory
rehearsal).
• Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad: Visual and spatial information.
,• Episodic Buffer: Integrates information across stores and links to LTM.
• Evidence: Dual-task studies show separate systems for visual and auditory processing.
Types of Long-Term Memory
• Episodic: Personal experiences, time-stamped, conscious recall.
• Semantic: Knowledge of facts, concepts, meanings.
• Procedural: Skills and actions, often unconscious (e.g., riding a bike).
Explanations for Forgetting
• Interference Theory:
• Proactive interference = old memories disrupt new.
• Retroactive interference = new memories disrupt old.
• Retrieval Failure (Cue-Dependent Forgetting):
• Encoding Specificity Principle (Tulving): recall better when cues present at encoding are
available at retrieval.
• Context-dependent (environmental cues).
• State-dependent (internal cues, e.g., mood).
Eyewitness Testimony (EWT)
, • Factors Affecting Accuracy:
• Misleading information (Loftus & Palmer, 1974 – car crash study).
• Leading questions and post-event discussion.
• Anxiety/stress: Yerkes-Dodson law suggests moderate anxiety improves recall, high
anxiety impairs it.
• Cognitive Interview (CI):
• Context reinstatement, report everything, change perspective, change order.
• Improves accuracy of recall compared to standard police interviews.
Key Studies
• Baddeley (1966): STM = acoustic coding, LTM = semantic coding.
• Miller (1956): STM capacity = 7±2 items.
• Peterson & Peterson (1959): STM duration = 18–30 seconds.
• Loftus & Palmer (1974): Leading questions distort EWT.
• Tulving (1985): Distinction between episodic and semantic memory.
