GTCC BIO 168 FINAL EXAM 2026/2027 – STUDY GUIDE, PRACTICE QUESTIONS,
EXAM REVIEW & TEST PREP
General Senses - correct answer ✔✔Pain, touch, vibration, temperature, proprioception
Reflex Path for General Senses/Simple Receptor - correct answer ✔✔1. Dendrite tip receives stimulus
causing a change in the receptor membrane potential
2. Threshold is reached
3. Action potential is sent to the CNS
4. CNS interprets
Phasic Receptor - correct answer ✔✔Fast adapting receptor. Inactive until activated by a stimulus.
Causes a strong response initially and followed by a steep decline
Tonic Receptor - correct answer ✔✔Slow adapting receptor. Always active at a low level w/out a
stimulus. Activity is proportional to stimulus
Receptor Adaptation - correct answer ✔✔Reduction in sensitivity when given constant stimulus. Tunes
out environmental noise
Peripheral Adaptation - correct answer ✔✔Occurs at the receptor level. Stimulus picked up by the
receptor then mediated by the CNS
Central Adaptation - correct answer ✔✔Occurs at the CNS level where the receptor picks up the stimulus
directly
Labled lines - correct answer ✔✔Link of the receptor/cortical neuron (neuron of the cerebral cortex)
that carries the modality of the stimulus
Modality - correct answer ✔✔Way a receptor connects the neuron to the brain
Receptive Field - correct answer ✔✔Area monitored by a single receptor cell. Increasing the size of the
receptive field makes it more difficult to localize a stimulus
Nociceptor - correct answer ✔✔Tonic pain receptors that respond to temperature, chemical and
mechanical damage. Numerous in skin, joints and vessels. Free nerve endings with large receptive fields
Pain Degree - correct answer ✔✔Levels of neurotransmitters released following exposure in which
Glutamate and Substance P are released at the synaptic cleft. The more Glutamate and Substance P
released, the higher the degree of pain
Type A Axons - correct answer ✔✔Nociceptors that produce the sensation of sharp, fast pain. Trigger
somatic reflexes
Type C Axons - correct answer ✔✔Nociceptors that produce the sensation of slow, aching pain. More
difficult to localize than type a axons
,Thermoreceptors - correct answer ✔✔Phasic receptors that detect changes in environmental
temperature and chemicals that mimic temperature. Numerous in skin and skeletal muscles. Free nerve
endings with small receptive fields
Mechanoreceptors - correct answer ✔✔Detect distortion in the form of stretch, twist and compression.
Consist of many types of tactile receptors
Free Nerve Endings - correct answer ✔✔Tactile tonic receptor with a small receptive field that respond
to touch, pain, temperature and pressure. Open dendrites found between epidermal cells that respond
to the general senses
Root Hair Plexus - correct answer ✔✔Phasic receptors that wrap around the hair root and respond to
hair movement
Tactile (Merkel) Disc - correct answer ✔✔Tactile tonic receptor with a small receptive field that responds
to fine touch and pressure. Found in the epidermis, associated with Merkel Cells
Tactile (Messiner's) Corpuscles - correct answer ✔✔Tactile phasic receptor with a large receptive field
that responds to fine touch and low frequency vibration. Found in the dermis within a capsule of
connective tissue
Lamellated (Pacinian) Corpuscle - correct answer ✔✔Tactile phasic receptor with a large receptive field
that responds to deep pressure and high frequency vibration. Found in the dermis covered by layers of
collagen
Ruffini Corpuscle - correct answer ✔✔Tactile tonic receptor with a large receptive field that responds to
pressure and skin distortion. Found in the deep dermis enclosed by a capsule of connective tissue and
dense collagen fibers
Baroreceptors - correct answer ✔✔Phasic receptor that responds to pressure changes. Found where
organs distend
Propriocetors - correct answer ✔✔Monitor muscle/tendon contraction and joint position. Indicate body
position awareness
Muscle Spindle - correct answer ✔✔Proprioceptors that monitor muscle length
Golgi Tendon Organ - correct answer ✔✔Proprioceptor that monitor muscle tension
Joint Capsule Receptor - correct answer ✔✔Proprioceptor that monitor joint movement
Chemoreceptors - correct answer ✔✔Respond to changes in the chemical composition in blood and
cerebral spinal fluid. Processes info at an unconscious level
Somatic Sensory Pathways - correct answer ✔✔Carry sensory receptor information from the skin, limbs
and muscles
,1st Order Neuron - correct answer ✔✔Transfers stimulus information from receptor to the CNS
2nd Order Neuron - correct answer ✔✔Interneuron in the brain and spinal cord. Transfers information
from the spinal cord to thalamus.
3rd Order Neuron - correct answer ✔✔Projects information onto specific areas of the brain to manifest
sensation. Carries signal from the thalamus to the cerebral cortex
Posterior Column Pathway - correct answer ✔✔(Somatic Sensory) Carries info for fine touch, pressure,
vibration and proprioception. Info moves over the Fasciculus Gracilis or Fasciculus Cuneatus tracts.
Thalamus distinguishes the sensation and projects it onto the primary sensory cortex
Fasciculus Gracilis vs. Fasiculus Cuneatus Tract - correct answer ✔✔Nerve tract that carries info from the
CNS to the lower body VS. Nerve tract that carries info from the CNS to the upper body
Anterolateral Pathway - correct answer ✔✔(Somatic Sensory) Carries info for crude touch, pain, pressure
and temperature. Info moves over the Anterior or Lateral Spinothalamic tracts. Thalamus distinguishes
the sensation and projects it onto the primary sensory cortex
Anterior Spinothalamic vs. Lateral Spinothalamic Tract - correct answer ✔✔Carries crude touch and
pressure sensations to the CNS VS. Carries pain and temperature sensations to the CNS
Spinocerebellar Pathway - correct answer ✔✔Carries info on the position of joints, muscles and tendons.
Info moves over the Anterior or Posterior Spinocerebellar Tracts and arrives at the cerebral cortex
Anterior vs. Posterior Spinocerebellar Tract - correct answer ✔✔Carries proprioceptive information from
the spine to the cerebellum VS. Carries proprioceptive information from the skeletal muscles to the
cerebellum
Visceral Sensory Pathways - correct answer ✔✔Carries receptor information from visceral tissues and
organs to the medulla oblongata
Somatic Motor Pathways - correct answer ✔✔Carries motor info to skeletal muscle
Corticospinal Pathways - correct answer ✔✔Provides conscious control over skeletal muscles. info moves
from the primary sensory cortex over the Anterior or lateral Corticospinal or Corticobulbar tracts
Anterior Corticospinal Tract - correct answer ✔✔Moves info from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord
Lateral Corticospinal Tract - correct answer ✔✔Carries motor information from the brain stem to distal
limbs
Motor vs. Sensory Homonculus - correct answer ✔✔Functional map of the primary motor cortex VS.
Map of the primary sensory cortex
Medial vs. Lateral Pathways - correct answer ✔✔Carries info for subconscious coarse motor movement
of proximal limb muscles VS. Carries info for subconscious precise motor movement of distal limb
muscles
, Cerebellum and Pathways - correct answer ✔✔Fine tunes proprioception, balance and visual info
Preganglionic Neurons - correct answer ✔✔Motor neurons originating in the CNS moving to the ANS.
Contains preganglionic fibers that move to a ganglion
Ganglionic Neurons - correct answer ✔✔ANS Motor neuron originating from a ganglia. Postganglionic
fiber moves to an effector
Sympathetic Division Function - correct answer ✔✔Prepares body for crisis. Increases heart/respiratory
rate and BP. Decreases digestive activity. Short pregang fibers and long postgang fibers. Pregibers arise in
spinal nerves T1-L2
Parasympathetic Division Function - correct answer ✔✔Prepares the body for rest. Increases digestive
activity. Decreases heart/respiratory rate and BP. Long pregang fibers and short postgang fibers. Pregang
fibers arise in brainstem and spinal nerves S2-S4
Pregang fibers in the Sympathetic division leave the _____ and move to many ________ or the _______ -
correct answer ✔✔CNS, Ganglia, Adrenal Meduallae
Adrenal Medulla - correct answer ✔✔Part of the Adrenal Gland where neuroendocrine cells secretes
epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood
Ganglion - correct answer ✔✔(Swelled region of a ganglion containing cell bodies) Processing center for
the PNS. Pregang fibers synapse w/neuroglial cells, and postgang fibers move out to effectors
Sympathetic Chain Ganglia - correct answer ✔✔Postganglionic fibers that innervate the head, neck and
limbs
Celiac Ganglion - correct answer ✔✔Postganglionic fibers that innervate the stomach and liver
Superior Mesenteric Ganglion - correct answer ✔✔Postganglionic fibers that innervate the small
intestine and the initial segment of the large intestine
Inferior Mesenteric Ganglion - correct answer ✔✔Postganglionic fibers that innervate the terminal
segment of the large intestine, kidney and bladder
Sympathetic Neurotransmitters: Preganglionic vs. Ganglionic Neurons - correct answer ✔✔Releases aCh
that binds to the ganglionic neuron VS. ReleaseS norepinepherine at vericosities
Varicosities - correct answer ✔✔Expanded terminal segments of a postgang fiber from which
neurotransmitters are released
Epinepherine - correct answer ✔✔Hormone released from the Adrenal Medullae that increases heart
rate
ANS: Sympathetic Receptors - correct answer ✔✔Epinephrine and norepinephrine bind to effector
receptors
EXAM REVIEW & TEST PREP
General Senses - correct answer ✔✔Pain, touch, vibration, temperature, proprioception
Reflex Path for General Senses/Simple Receptor - correct answer ✔✔1. Dendrite tip receives stimulus
causing a change in the receptor membrane potential
2. Threshold is reached
3. Action potential is sent to the CNS
4. CNS interprets
Phasic Receptor - correct answer ✔✔Fast adapting receptor. Inactive until activated by a stimulus.
Causes a strong response initially and followed by a steep decline
Tonic Receptor - correct answer ✔✔Slow adapting receptor. Always active at a low level w/out a
stimulus. Activity is proportional to stimulus
Receptor Adaptation - correct answer ✔✔Reduction in sensitivity when given constant stimulus. Tunes
out environmental noise
Peripheral Adaptation - correct answer ✔✔Occurs at the receptor level. Stimulus picked up by the
receptor then mediated by the CNS
Central Adaptation - correct answer ✔✔Occurs at the CNS level where the receptor picks up the stimulus
directly
Labled lines - correct answer ✔✔Link of the receptor/cortical neuron (neuron of the cerebral cortex)
that carries the modality of the stimulus
Modality - correct answer ✔✔Way a receptor connects the neuron to the brain
Receptive Field - correct answer ✔✔Area monitored by a single receptor cell. Increasing the size of the
receptive field makes it more difficult to localize a stimulus
Nociceptor - correct answer ✔✔Tonic pain receptors that respond to temperature, chemical and
mechanical damage. Numerous in skin, joints and vessels. Free nerve endings with large receptive fields
Pain Degree - correct answer ✔✔Levels of neurotransmitters released following exposure in which
Glutamate and Substance P are released at the synaptic cleft. The more Glutamate and Substance P
released, the higher the degree of pain
Type A Axons - correct answer ✔✔Nociceptors that produce the sensation of sharp, fast pain. Trigger
somatic reflexes
Type C Axons - correct answer ✔✔Nociceptors that produce the sensation of slow, aching pain. More
difficult to localize than type a axons
,Thermoreceptors - correct answer ✔✔Phasic receptors that detect changes in environmental
temperature and chemicals that mimic temperature. Numerous in skin and skeletal muscles. Free nerve
endings with small receptive fields
Mechanoreceptors - correct answer ✔✔Detect distortion in the form of stretch, twist and compression.
Consist of many types of tactile receptors
Free Nerve Endings - correct answer ✔✔Tactile tonic receptor with a small receptive field that respond
to touch, pain, temperature and pressure. Open dendrites found between epidermal cells that respond
to the general senses
Root Hair Plexus - correct answer ✔✔Phasic receptors that wrap around the hair root and respond to
hair movement
Tactile (Merkel) Disc - correct answer ✔✔Tactile tonic receptor with a small receptive field that responds
to fine touch and pressure. Found in the epidermis, associated with Merkel Cells
Tactile (Messiner's) Corpuscles - correct answer ✔✔Tactile phasic receptor with a large receptive field
that responds to fine touch and low frequency vibration. Found in the dermis within a capsule of
connective tissue
Lamellated (Pacinian) Corpuscle - correct answer ✔✔Tactile phasic receptor with a large receptive field
that responds to deep pressure and high frequency vibration. Found in the dermis covered by layers of
collagen
Ruffini Corpuscle - correct answer ✔✔Tactile tonic receptor with a large receptive field that responds to
pressure and skin distortion. Found in the deep dermis enclosed by a capsule of connective tissue and
dense collagen fibers
Baroreceptors - correct answer ✔✔Phasic receptor that responds to pressure changes. Found where
organs distend
Propriocetors - correct answer ✔✔Monitor muscle/tendon contraction and joint position. Indicate body
position awareness
Muscle Spindle - correct answer ✔✔Proprioceptors that monitor muscle length
Golgi Tendon Organ - correct answer ✔✔Proprioceptor that monitor muscle tension
Joint Capsule Receptor - correct answer ✔✔Proprioceptor that monitor joint movement
Chemoreceptors - correct answer ✔✔Respond to changes in the chemical composition in blood and
cerebral spinal fluid. Processes info at an unconscious level
Somatic Sensory Pathways - correct answer ✔✔Carry sensory receptor information from the skin, limbs
and muscles
,1st Order Neuron - correct answer ✔✔Transfers stimulus information from receptor to the CNS
2nd Order Neuron - correct answer ✔✔Interneuron in the brain and spinal cord. Transfers information
from the spinal cord to thalamus.
3rd Order Neuron - correct answer ✔✔Projects information onto specific areas of the brain to manifest
sensation. Carries signal from the thalamus to the cerebral cortex
Posterior Column Pathway - correct answer ✔✔(Somatic Sensory) Carries info for fine touch, pressure,
vibration and proprioception. Info moves over the Fasciculus Gracilis or Fasciculus Cuneatus tracts.
Thalamus distinguishes the sensation and projects it onto the primary sensory cortex
Fasciculus Gracilis vs. Fasiculus Cuneatus Tract - correct answer ✔✔Nerve tract that carries info from the
CNS to the lower body VS. Nerve tract that carries info from the CNS to the upper body
Anterolateral Pathway - correct answer ✔✔(Somatic Sensory) Carries info for crude touch, pain, pressure
and temperature. Info moves over the Anterior or Lateral Spinothalamic tracts. Thalamus distinguishes
the sensation and projects it onto the primary sensory cortex
Anterior Spinothalamic vs. Lateral Spinothalamic Tract - correct answer ✔✔Carries crude touch and
pressure sensations to the CNS VS. Carries pain and temperature sensations to the CNS
Spinocerebellar Pathway - correct answer ✔✔Carries info on the position of joints, muscles and tendons.
Info moves over the Anterior or Posterior Spinocerebellar Tracts and arrives at the cerebral cortex
Anterior vs. Posterior Spinocerebellar Tract - correct answer ✔✔Carries proprioceptive information from
the spine to the cerebellum VS. Carries proprioceptive information from the skeletal muscles to the
cerebellum
Visceral Sensory Pathways - correct answer ✔✔Carries receptor information from visceral tissues and
organs to the medulla oblongata
Somatic Motor Pathways - correct answer ✔✔Carries motor info to skeletal muscle
Corticospinal Pathways - correct answer ✔✔Provides conscious control over skeletal muscles. info moves
from the primary sensory cortex over the Anterior or lateral Corticospinal or Corticobulbar tracts
Anterior Corticospinal Tract - correct answer ✔✔Moves info from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord
Lateral Corticospinal Tract - correct answer ✔✔Carries motor information from the brain stem to distal
limbs
Motor vs. Sensory Homonculus - correct answer ✔✔Functional map of the primary motor cortex VS.
Map of the primary sensory cortex
Medial vs. Lateral Pathways - correct answer ✔✔Carries info for subconscious coarse motor movement
of proximal limb muscles VS. Carries info for subconscious precise motor movement of distal limb
muscles
, Cerebellum and Pathways - correct answer ✔✔Fine tunes proprioception, balance and visual info
Preganglionic Neurons - correct answer ✔✔Motor neurons originating in the CNS moving to the ANS.
Contains preganglionic fibers that move to a ganglion
Ganglionic Neurons - correct answer ✔✔ANS Motor neuron originating from a ganglia. Postganglionic
fiber moves to an effector
Sympathetic Division Function - correct answer ✔✔Prepares body for crisis. Increases heart/respiratory
rate and BP. Decreases digestive activity. Short pregang fibers and long postgang fibers. Pregibers arise in
spinal nerves T1-L2
Parasympathetic Division Function - correct answer ✔✔Prepares the body for rest. Increases digestive
activity. Decreases heart/respiratory rate and BP. Long pregang fibers and short postgang fibers. Pregang
fibers arise in brainstem and spinal nerves S2-S4
Pregang fibers in the Sympathetic division leave the _____ and move to many ________ or the _______ -
correct answer ✔✔CNS, Ganglia, Adrenal Meduallae
Adrenal Medulla - correct answer ✔✔Part of the Adrenal Gland where neuroendocrine cells secretes
epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood
Ganglion - correct answer ✔✔(Swelled region of a ganglion containing cell bodies) Processing center for
the PNS. Pregang fibers synapse w/neuroglial cells, and postgang fibers move out to effectors
Sympathetic Chain Ganglia - correct answer ✔✔Postganglionic fibers that innervate the head, neck and
limbs
Celiac Ganglion - correct answer ✔✔Postganglionic fibers that innervate the stomach and liver
Superior Mesenteric Ganglion - correct answer ✔✔Postganglionic fibers that innervate the small
intestine and the initial segment of the large intestine
Inferior Mesenteric Ganglion - correct answer ✔✔Postganglionic fibers that innervate the terminal
segment of the large intestine, kidney and bladder
Sympathetic Neurotransmitters: Preganglionic vs. Ganglionic Neurons - correct answer ✔✔Releases aCh
that binds to the ganglionic neuron VS. ReleaseS norepinepherine at vericosities
Varicosities - correct answer ✔✔Expanded terminal segments of a postgang fiber from which
neurotransmitters are released
Epinepherine - correct answer ✔✔Hormone released from the Adrenal Medullae that increases heart
rate
ANS: Sympathetic Receptors - correct answer ✔✔Epinephrine and norepinephrine bind to effector
receptors
