Chapter 1 – Psychology: The Science of Behaviour
Psychology = The scientific study of behaviour and the factors that influence it.
Taking into account Biological, Individual and Environmental factors.
Basic and Applied Science
Two types of research:
o Basic research: Knowledge gained purely for its own sake. The goals are
to describe how people behave and to identify factors that influence it.
Research maybe carried out in lab or real world
E.g. Robert Cave – Jigsaw case study - showed how competition
leads to hostility but could be reduced by making them dependent
on each other.
o Applied research: Knowledge gained to solve specific practical problems.
Uses principles discovered via basic research to solve practical problems.
Goals of Psychology
Four basic goals:
o Describe how people and animals behave
o Explain and understand the causes of the behaviour
o Predict how people and animals behave under certain conditions
o Influence or control the behaviour through knowledge and control of
causes
Importance of Perspectives
Diverse viewpoints allows for enriched understanding of behaviour and its causes
Six different perspectives: biological, cognitive, psychodynamic, behavioural,
humanistic, and sociocultural.
o Biological - physical side of human nature, brain
and genes
o Cognitive - thought process
o Psychodynamic - unconscious forces motivating
behaviour
o Behavioral - role of external environment on out
action
o Humanistic - self actualization and free will
o Sociocultural - culture and behaviour relate
The Biological Perspective
Focuses on the physical side of human nature
o Emphasizes role of brain, including biochemical processes
Mind-body dualism: The belief that the mind is a spiritual entity not subject to the
physical laws that govern the body
o No amount of research on the body could ever explain the mind
o Ancient widely-held view, especially by Greeks
, Monism: The belief that the mind and body are one, and mental events are a
product of physical events
o Modern view by most scientists
Discovery of Brain-Behaviour Relations
Late 1700s, Luigi Galvani discovered severed leg of frog moved with
electrical current applied to it
o Defied prior belief that bodily movements were caused by soul
By 1870, researchers applied electrical stimulation directly to brains of
animals
o Stimulation of specific areas on brain resulted in movements of
particular muscles
Karl Lashley damaged specific regions of brain and studied effects on
learning and memory abilities in animals trained to run through mazes
In 1929, invention of electroencephalogram (EEG) allowed researchers to
measure electrical activity of large areas of brain
Evolution and Behaviour
Darwin’s theory of natural selection demonstrated that inheritable
characteristics that increase likelihood of survival will be maintained.
Proposed that humans and apes arose from the same ancestor.
Evolutionary psychology focuses on role of evolution in development of
human behaviour
o Psychologists stress organism’s biology determine its behavioural
capabilities and behaviour
Sociobiology holds that complex social behaviours are built into human
species as products of evolution
o Natural selection favors behaviours that increase ability to pass on
genes (aggression, competition, dominance in males, cooperation
and nurturing in females, etc.)
o Sociobiologists believe that one’s genetic survival is more
important than one’s own physical survival (altruism)
o Criticized for overemphasizing innate biological factors at expense
of cultural and social learning factors in explaining complex
human social behaviour
Behaviour Genetics
Study of how behavioural tendencies are influenced by genetic factors
Animals can be bred not only for physical, but also behavioural traits
(aggression, intelligence, etc.)
Identical twins, with identical genetic makeup, are very similar in
behaviour compared to fraternal twins
o Found even when identical twins reared in different homes
,The Cognitive Perspective
Views humans as information processors and problem solvers whose actions are
governed by thought and planning. What sets humans apart is that we have mental
capabilities.
o Studies how mental processes influence our motives, emotions, and
behaviour
Several schools and individuals contributed to modern cognitive perspective:
o Structuralism
Analysis of mind in terms of its basic elements
Studied sensations through introspection (“looking within”)
Patients were exposed to stimuli and asked to explain their
experiences.
Wilhelm Wundt wanted to model study of the mind after physical
and biological sciences. Believed mind could be studied via
breaking it down to its basic parts, this was called structuralism.
Believed sensations were basic elements of consciousness.
Founded first laboratory of experimental psychology in
1879
o Functionalism
Psychology should study the functions of consciousness rather than
its structure- the Whats
Influenced partly by Darwin’s evolutionary theory (adaption to
succeed)
William James broad functionalist approach helped widen the
scope of psychology to include biological/mental processes and
behaviour
o Gestalt Psychology
Concerned with how elements of experience are organized into
wholes
Opposite of structuralism
Wolfgang Kohler concluded that ability to perceive relationships is
the essence of intelligence
Defined “insight” as sudden perception of a useful
relationship or solution to a problem
Demonstrated insight by observing chimpanzee use various
items in a cage to reach a banana at the top
o Jean Piaget
Studied how children think, reason, and solve problems
Concerned with how the mind and its development contribute to
our ability to adapt to our environment
o Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck
Attempted to understand how mental distortions and irrational
thought patterns create emotional problems
Emphasized that distress and maladaptive behaviour are caused by
the ways situations are thought about, not by external situations
, Modern Cognitive Science
Artificial intelligence develops computer models of complex human
thought, reasoning, and problem solving
Interested in how people produce and recognize speech and how creative
solutions to problems are produced
Social constructivism: What we consider reality is in large part our own
mental creation
o Little shared reality exists apart from what groups of people
socially construct through subjective meaning they give to their
experiences
o Believe male and female sex roles created not by nature, but by
shared world view that exists within social groups
The Psychodynamic Perspective
Searches for causes of behaviour within workings of personality, emphasizing
role of unconscious processes and unresolved conflicts from past
Sigmund Freud emphasized role of complex psychological forces in controlling
human behaviour
o Focused on hysteria, condition where physical symptoms develop without
organic cause
o Found improvement in patients after they reported and relived painful
childhood sexual experiences
o Led Freud to believe that most of human behaviour is influenced by
unconscious forces
o Believed repression was a defense mechanism to keep anxiety-arousing
impulses, feelings, and memories in unconscious depth of mind
o All behaviour is a reflection of unconscious internal struggle between
conflicting psychological forces of impulse and defenses
Freud opposed laboratory research, and depended on clinical observations and
personal self-analysis
The Behavioural Perspective
Focuses on the role of the external environment in shaping and governing our
actions
o Behaviour influenced by learned habits and by stimuli in the environment
History rooted in school of philosophy known as British Empiricism
o All ideas and knowledge are gained empirically
o John Locke: The human mind is initially a white paper, to be furnished by
experience
o Observation overrules reasoning, since “seeing is believing” while
reasoning has potential for error
o Pavlov found involuntary learning in dogs from external stimulus
John Watson lead movement of behaviourism in 1920s
o Proper subject matter of psychology is observable behaviour, not
unobservable inner consciousness
Psychology = The scientific study of behaviour and the factors that influence it.
Taking into account Biological, Individual and Environmental factors.
Basic and Applied Science
Two types of research:
o Basic research: Knowledge gained purely for its own sake. The goals are
to describe how people behave and to identify factors that influence it.
Research maybe carried out in lab or real world
E.g. Robert Cave – Jigsaw case study - showed how competition
leads to hostility but could be reduced by making them dependent
on each other.
o Applied research: Knowledge gained to solve specific practical problems.
Uses principles discovered via basic research to solve practical problems.
Goals of Psychology
Four basic goals:
o Describe how people and animals behave
o Explain and understand the causes of the behaviour
o Predict how people and animals behave under certain conditions
o Influence or control the behaviour through knowledge and control of
causes
Importance of Perspectives
Diverse viewpoints allows for enriched understanding of behaviour and its causes
Six different perspectives: biological, cognitive, psychodynamic, behavioural,
humanistic, and sociocultural.
o Biological - physical side of human nature, brain
and genes
o Cognitive - thought process
o Psychodynamic - unconscious forces motivating
behaviour
o Behavioral - role of external environment on out
action
o Humanistic - self actualization and free will
o Sociocultural - culture and behaviour relate
The Biological Perspective
Focuses on the physical side of human nature
o Emphasizes role of brain, including biochemical processes
Mind-body dualism: The belief that the mind is a spiritual entity not subject to the
physical laws that govern the body
o No amount of research on the body could ever explain the mind
o Ancient widely-held view, especially by Greeks
, Monism: The belief that the mind and body are one, and mental events are a
product of physical events
o Modern view by most scientists
Discovery of Brain-Behaviour Relations
Late 1700s, Luigi Galvani discovered severed leg of frog moved with
electrical current applied to it
o Defied prior belief that bodily movements were caused by soul
By 1870, researchers applied electrical stimulation directly to brains of
animals
o Stimulation of specific areas on brain resulted in movements of
particular muscles
Karl Lashley damaged specific regions of brain and studied effects on
learning and memory abilities in animals trained to run through mazes
In 1929, invention of electroencephalogram (EEG) allowed researchers to
measure electrical activity of large areas of brain
Evolution and Behaviour
Darwin’s theory of natural selection demonstrated that inheritable
characteristics that increase likelihood of survival will be maintained.
Proposed that humans and apes arose from the same ancestor.
Evolutionary psychology focuses on role of evolution in development of
human behaviour
o Psychologists stress organism’s biology determine its behavioural
capabilities and behaviour
Sociobiology holds that complex social behaviours are built into human
species as products of evolution
o Natural selection favors behaviours that increase ability to pass on
genes (aggression, competition, dominance in males, cooperation
and nurturing in females, etc.)
o Sociobiologists believe that one’s genetic survival is more
important than one’s own physical survival (altruism)
o Criticized for overemphasizing innate biological factors at expense
of cultural and social learning factors in explaining complex
human social behaviour
Behaviour Genetics
Study of how behavioural tendencies are influenced by genetic factors
Animals can be bred not only for physical, but also behavioural traits
(aggression, intelligence, etc.)
Identical twins, with identical genetic makeup, are very similar in
behaviour compared to fraternal twins
o Found even when identical twins reared in different homes
,The Cognitive Perspective
Views humans as information processors and problem solvers whose actions are
governed by thought and planning. What sets humans apart is that we have mental
capabilities.
o Studies how mental processes influence our motives, emotions, and
behaviour
Several schools and individuals contributed to modern cognitive perspective:
o Structuralism
Analysis of mind in terms of its basic elements
Studied sensations through introspection (“looking within”)
Patients were exposed to stimuli and asked to explain their
experiences.
Wilhelm Wundt wanted to model study of the mind after physical
and biological sciences. Believed mind could be studied via
breaking it down to its basic parts, this was called structuralism.
Believed sensations were basic elements of consciousness.
Founded first laboratory of experimental psychology in
1879
o Functionalism
Psychology should study the functions of consciousness rather than
its structure- the Whats
Influenced partly by Darwin’s evolutionary theory (adaption to
succeed)
William James broad functionalist approach helped widen the
scope of psychology to include biological/mental processes and
behaviour
o Gestalt Psychology
Concerned with how elements of experience are organized into
wholes
Opposite of structuralism
Wolfgang Kohler concluded that ability to perceive relationships is
the essence of intelligence
Defined “insight” as sudden perception of a useful
relationship or solution to a problem
Demonstrated insight by observing chimpanzee use various
items in a cage to reach a banana at the top
o Jean Piaget
Studied how children think, reason, and solve problems
Concerned with how the mind and its development contribute to
our ability to adapt to our environment
o Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck
Attempted to understand how mental distortions and irrational
thought patterns create emotional problems
Emphasized that distress and maladaptive behaviour are caused by
the ways situations are thought about, not by external situations
, Modern Cognitive Science
Artificial intelligence develops computer models of complex human
thought, reasoning, and problem solving
Interested in how people produce and recognize speech and how creative
solutions to problems are produced
Social constructivism: What we consider reality is in large part our own
mental creation
o Little shared reality exists apart from what groups of people
socially construct through subjective meaning they give to their
experiences
o Believe male and female sex roles created not by nature, but by
shared world view that exists within social groups
The Psychodynamic Perspective
Searches for causes of behaviour within workings of personality, emphasizing
role of unconscious processes and unresolved conflicts from past
Sigmund Freud emphasized role of complex psychological forces in controlling
human behaviour
o Focused on hysteria, condition where physical symptoms develop without
organic cause
o Found improvement in patients after they reported and relived painful
childhood sexual experiences
o Led Freud to believe that most of human behaviour is influenced by
unconscious forces
o Believed repression was a defense mechanism to keep anxiety-arousing
impulses, feelings, and memories in unconscious depth of mind
o All behaviour is a reflection of unconscious internal struggle between
conflicting psychological forces of impulse and defenses
Freud opposed laboratory research, and depended on clinical observations and
personal self-analysis
The Behavioural Perspective
Focuses on the role of the external environment in shaping and governing our
actions
o Behaviour influenced by learned habits and by stimuli in the environment
History rooted in school of philosophy known as British Empiricism
o All ideas and knowledge are gained empirically
o John Locke: The human mind is initially a white paper, to be furnished by
experience
o Observation overrules reasoning, since “seeing is believing” while
reasoning has potential for error
o Pavlov found involuntary learning in dogs from external stimulus
John Watson lead movement of behaviourism in 1920s
o Proper subject matter of psychology is observable behaviour, not
unobservable inner consciousness
