Chapter 11 - Personality
11.1 THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY
Personality is a hypothetical construct that has been defined in a variety of ways
11.1.1 Defining personality: Consistency and
distinctiveness
No one is entirely consistent in their behaviour but the quality of consistency
across situations lies at the core of the concept of personality
Distinctiveness is also central to the concept of personality - personality is
used to explain why everyone does not act the same way in similar situations
Each person has traits that can be seen in other people but each person has
their own distinctive set of personality traits
Consistency: the stability in a personʼs behaviour over time and across
situations
Distinctiveness: the behavioural differences among people reacting to the
same situation
→ Personality: an individualʼs unique set of consistent behavioural traits
11.1.2 Personality traits: Dispositions and dimensions
“conscientiousˮ “timidˮ → descriptive words used to describe personality traits
Personality trait: a durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a
variety of situations
→ honest, dependable, moody, impulsive etc. → adjectives that describe
dispositions that represent personality traits
Gordan Allport, personality theorist, went through an unabridged dictionary
and identified more than 4500 personality traits
Chapter 11 Personality 1
, Most approaches to personality assume that some traits are more basic than
others → a small number of fundamental traits determine other, more
superficial traits → a number of theorists take on the challenge of identifying
the basic traits that form the core of personality
→ depends on factor analysis (statistical procedure): correlations among many
variables are analysed to identify closely related clusters of variables → to
determine hidden factors which are basic, higher-order traits that determine less
basic, more specific traits
11.1.3 The five-factor model of personality traits
Robert McCrae and Paul Costa
→ main conception of personality structure in contemporary psychology
Extraversion (positive emotionality): outgoing, sociable, upbeat, friendly,
assertive and gregarious → also have a more positive outlook on life and and
are motivated to pursue social contact, intimacy and interdependence
Sociable vs Retiring; Fun-loving vs Sober; Affectionate vs Reserved
Neuroticism (negative emotionality): anxious, hostile, self-conscious,
insecure and vulnerable → also tend to exhibit more impulsiveness and
emotional instability than others
Worried vs Calm; Insecure vs Secure; Self-pitying vs Self-satisfied
Openness to experience: curiosity, flexibility, imaginativeness, intellectual
pursuits, interests in new ideas and unconventional attitudes → tend to be
tolerable of ambiguity
Imaginative vs Down-to-earth; Preference for variety vs Preference for
routine; Independent vs Conforming
Agreeableness: warm, sympathetic, trusting, compassionate, cooperative,
modest and straightforward → correlated with empathy and helping behaviour
Soft-hearted vs Ruthless; Trusting vs Suspicious; Helpful vs Uncooperative
Conscientiousness (constraint): diligent, well-organised, punctual and
dependable → associated with strong self-discipline and the ability to regulate
oneself effectively
Chapter 11 Personality 2
, Well-organised vs Disorganised; Careful vs Carelessness; Self-disciplined vs
Weak-willed
Females tend to score higher than males on agreeableness and neuroticism, other
sex disparities can be found in conscientiousness with women scoring higher than
men → gender differences probably reflect the operation of both genetic and
environmental influences
Correlations have been found between Big Five traits and quite a variety of
personal tendencies and important life outcomes
Study of Big Five and job success concluded that the absolute values of various
traits may not be as important as how well individualsʼ traits fit with the demands
of a specific job
Several of the Big Five traits can be related to health and mortality
4 Personality Theories
Psychodynamic perspectives
Behavioural perspectives
Humanistic perspectives
Biological perspectives
11.2 PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVES
Sigmund Freud - diverse theories descending from his work
Unconscious mental forces
Carl Jung and Alfred Adler
11.2.1 Freudʼs Psychoanalytical theory
tries to explain personality by focusing on the influence of early childhood
experiences, unconscious conflicts and sexual urges
Chapter 11 Personality 3
11.1 THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY
Personality is a hypothetical construct that has been defined in a variety of ways
11.1.1 Defining personality: Consistency and
distinctiveness
No one is entirely consistent in their behaviour but the quality of consistency
across situations lies at the core of the concept of personality
Distinctiveness is also central to the concept of personality - personality is
used to explain why everyone does not act the same way in similar situations
Each person has traits that can be seen in other people but each person has
their own distinctive set of personality traits
Consistency: the stability in a personʼs behaviour over time and across
situations
Distinctiveness: the behavioural differences among people reacting to the
same situation
→ Personality: an individualʼs unique set of consistent behavioural traits
11.1.2 Personality traits: Dispositions and dimensions
“conscientiousˮ “timidˮ → descriptive words used to describe personality traits
Personality trait: a durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a
variety of situations
→ honest, dependable, moody, impulsive etc. → adjectives that describe
dispositions that represent personality traits
Gordan Allport, personality theorist, went through an unabridged dictionary
and identified more than 4500 personality traits
Chapter 11 Personality 1
, Most approaches to personality assume that some traits are more basic than
others → a small number of fundamental traits determine other, more
superficial traits → a number of theorists take on the challenge of identifying
the basic traits that form the core of personality
→ depends on factor analysis (statistical procedure): correlations among many
variables are analysed to identify closely related clusters of variables → to
determine hidden factors which are basic, higher-order traits that determine less
basic, more specific traits
11.1.3 The five-factor model of personality traits
Robert McCrae and Paul Costa
→ main conception of personality structure in contemporary psychology
Extraversion (positive emotionality): outgoing, sociable, upbeat, friendly,
assertive and gregarious → also have a more positive outlook on life and and
are motivated to pursue social contact, intimacy and interdependence
Sociable vs Retiring; Fun-loving vs Sober; Affectionate vs Reserved
Neuroticism (negative emotionality): anxious, hostile, self-conscious,
insecure and vulnerable → also tend to exhibit more impulsiveness and
emotional instability than others
Worried vs Calm; Insecure vs Secure; Self-pitying vs Self-satisfied
Openness to experience: curiosity, flexibility, imaginativeness, intellectual
pursuits, interests in new ideas and unconventional attitudes → tend to be
tolerable of ambiguity
Imaginative vs Down-to-earth; Preference for variety vs Preference for
routine; Independent vs Conforming
Agreeableness: warm, sympathetic, trusting, compassionate, cooperative,
modest and straightforward → correlated with empathy and helping behaviour
Soft-hearted vs Ruthless; Trusting vs Suspicious; Helpful vs Uncooperative
Conscientiousness (constraint): diligent, well-organised, punctual and
dependable → associated with strong self-discipline and the ability to regulate
oneself effectively
Chapter 11 Personality 2
, Well-organised vs Disorganised; Careful vs Carelessness; Self-disciplined vs
Weak-willed
Females tend to score higher than males on agreeableness and neuroticism, other
sex disparities can be found in conscientiousness with women scoring higher than
men → gender differences probably reflect the operation of both genetic and
environmental influences
Correlations have been found between Big Five traits and quite a variety of
personal tendencies and important life outcomes
Study of Big Five and job success concluded that the absolute values of various
traits may not be as important as how well individualsʼ traits fit with the demands
of a specific job
Several of the Big Five traits can be related to health and mortality
4 Personality Theories
Psychodynamic perspectives
Behavioural perspectives
Humanistic perspectives
Biological perspectives
11.2 PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVES
Sigmund Freud - diverse theories descending from his work
Unconscious mental forces
Carl Jung and Alfred Adler
11.2.1 Freudʼs Psychoanalytical theory
tries to explain personality by focusing on the influence of early childhood
experiences, unconscious conflicts and sexual urges
Chapter 11 Personality 3
