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PYC3713: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY SUMMARY AND QUESTIONS
CHAPTER 1
1. Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mind.
2. The mind creates and controls mental capacities such as perception, attention and memory, and creates representations
of the world that enable us to function.
3. The work of Donders (simple vs choice reaction time) and Ebbinghaus (the forgetting curve for nonsense syllables) are
examples of early experimental research on the mind.
4. Because the operation of the mind cannot be observed directly, its operation must be inferred from what we can measure,
such as behaviour or physiological responding. This is one of the basic principles of cognitive psychology.
5. The first laboratory of scientific psychology, founded by Wundt in 1879, was concerned largely with studying the mind.
Structuralism was the dominant theoretical approach of this laboratory, and analytic introspection was one of the major
methods used to collect data.
6. William James, in the United States, used observations of his own mind as the basis of his textbook, Principles of
Psychology
7. In the first decades of the 20th century, John Watson founded behaviourism, partly in reaction to structuralism and the
method of analytic introspection. His procedures were based on classical conditioning. Behaviourism’s central tenet was
that psychology was properly studied by measuring observable behaviour, and that invisible mental processes were not
valid topics for the study of psychology.
8. Beginning in the 1930s and 1940s, B. F. Skinner’s work on operant conditioning assured that behaviourism would be the
dominant force in psychology through the 1950s.
9. In the 1950s, a number of events occurred that led to what has been called the cognitive revolution—a decline in the
influence of behaviourism and a re-emergence of the study of the mind. These events included the following:
(a) Chomsky’s critique of Skinner’s book Verbal Behaviour; (b) the introduction of the digital computer and the idea that the
mind processes information in stages, like a computer; (c) Cherry’s dichotic listening experiments and Broadbent’s
introduction of flow diagrams to depict the processes involved in attention; and (d) interdisciplinary approaches to artificial
intelligence and information theory.
10. Models play an essential role in cognitive psychology by representing structures or processes. Structural models
represent structures in the brain and how they are connected. Process models illustrate how a process or function operates.
Resource models focus on which type and how much mental effort certain processes and tasks use. Models make
complicated systems easier to understand and often provide a starting point for research.
11. Our increased understanding of the functioning of our mind can be used to (a) design proper control panels and traffic
situations; (b) influence decision making and consumer behaviour; (c) improve protocols relating to eyewitness
interrogation; (d) develop working memory and executive-control training programmes; and (e) stimulate good practice in
education.
12. Three things that may help in learning the material in this book are (a) repeatedly return to what you have read and relate
this to previous topics; (b) do the test yourself tests at the end of each chapter and use the online self-assessment tools;
and (c) frequently ask yourself “Why?” and try to explain what you have read for yourself.
Think about it
1. The idea that we have something called “the mind” that is responsible for our thoughts and behaviour is reflected in the
many ways that the word mind can be used. A few examples of the use of mind in everyday language were cited at the
beginning of the chapter. Can you think of more examples that illustrate different uses of the word mind, and decide how
relevant each is to what you will be studying in cognitive psychology (as indicated by the table of contents of this book)?
, Page |2
2. Donders compared the results of his simple and choice reaction time experiments to infer how long it took, when given a
choice, to make the decision as to which button to push. With the knowledge of today, what could be wrong with this kind
of reasoning? What could be the consequence of this critique for our interpretation of brain imaging data?
3. Comparing the workings of our minds to how a computer processes information leaves out an important aspect of being
human; namely that we have a body! A current approach in psychology, called embodied cognition, does not see thinking
as something that is “divorced” from the body. In this view the importance of action (through a biological body) is
emphasized: “Cognition exists to guide action” and “The brain interacts with the environment”. Can you think of examples
of how action shapes perception, the self and language? Do you think that by giving “cognition” a “body,” cognitive
psychology could be integrated more with biology and other areas of psychology (for example social or clinical psychology)?
CogLab experiment
Numbers in parentheses refer to the experiment number in CogLab. Simple detection (2)
Test yourself on this chapter
• Describe the rise of behaviorism and how this has affected research on the mind.
• What is meant by “the information-processing approach”?
• What are structural and process models and how do they relate to each other?
1. How would you define the mind?
2. Why could we say that Donders and Ebbinghaus were cognitive psychologists, even though in the 19th century there was no field
called cognitive psychology?
3. Describe the rise of behaviourism and how this has affected research on the mind? 4. What is meant by “the information-processing
approach” and how is this relevant for cognitive psychology?
5. Why are models important in cognitive psychology? What are structural, process and resource models and how do they relate to
each other?
6. Describe four different everyday situations for which it is important to understand how we process information and come to certain
decisions.
Activity 1.1
In order to understand a research area, we must know what the goals of the research are. So, what are the goals of research in cognitive
psychology?
Activity 1.2
Consider the following statement:
Chomsky argued that research on the language development of young children supports Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning
because it shows that language is learned by operant conditioning.
The statement is:
1. true
2. false
Activity 1.3
In an experimental design, this is often the outcome or the variable that is being measured (e.g., score on a test).
1. extraneous variable
2. independent variable
3. dependent variable
4. confounding variable
Activity 1.4
Yaun participated in an experiment in which he saw various stimuli on a computer screen. After the experiment, Yaun was asked to
provide feedback about what he thought was going on cognitively. This would be an example of a - - - - - method.
1. naturalistic observation
2. verbal protocol
3. case study
4. psychobiological
Activity 1.5
Give two reasons why cognitive psychologists should be interested in AI.
, Page |3
Activity 1.6
How does Searle attempt to refute the possibility of an artificial intelligence program that actually converses in natural language and
understands spoken language? Before answering this question, read the additional explanation of the "Chinese room argument" in this
tutorial letter.
Activity 1.7
What is an expert system in the context of AI research? Name one of the well-known expert systems that have been developed and
explain how it is applied. Do some web searching to answer this question because the notion of an "expert system" is not explained in
CP.
Activity 1.8
What is "deep learning", and why is this machine-learning technique of relevance to cognitive psychologists? Note that deep learning
is not mentioned in the prescribed book, but this is a very "hot" topic, and just about all the large global Internet companies (e.g.,
Google, Amazon, Microsoft, Facebook) are investing heavily in research on deep learning.
Activity 1.9
In cognitive science, a distinction is drawn between "strong" and "weak" AI. First, explain what the difference is between these two
approaches to AI (do some searching on the Internet), and then discuss the following statement:
Roberto: "I think that the Turing test is a true test for artificial intelligence, and I would further argue that if a program passes the Turing
test, then that program is necessarily a manifestation of strong AI."
GLOSSARY CHECK
Briefly define the following terms in your own words and give your OWN example of each:
Analytic introspection, artificial intelligence, behaviourism, choice reaction time, classical conditioning, cognition, cognitive map,
cognitive psychology, cognitive revolution, dichotic listening, empiricist approach, information-processing approach, interleaving,
logic theorist, mind, operant conditioning, process model, reaction time, retrieval-based learning, savings, savings curve, simple
reaction time, structuralism, structural model.
FEEDBACK ON SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
Activity 1.1
One of the goals is to understand human cognition and the brain-mind relationship, and construct theories to explain
the mechanisms underlying cognitive processes. Another goal is to develop intelligent artefacts (e.g., artificial intelligence products) –
these artefacts are mostly based on theories of aspects of human cognition.
Activity 1.2
The statement is false because Chomsky wrote a very critical review of behaviourism in which he argued that Skinner’s theory of
operant conditioning cannot account satisfactorily for the ability of young children to develop language, and to use language creatively
by constructing novel sentences.
Activity 1.3
Alternative 3 is correct. The variable that is being measured is called the dependent variable, because it is assumed to be
influenced by, or "dependent" on, the variable that is being manipulated in experimental studies, the independent variable.
Activity 1.4
Alternative 2 is correct because the researchers want Yaun to describe aloud what he was thinking while the experiment was being
performed. The experimenters are therefore eliciting a verbal protocol (i.e., a verbal report) from Yaun.
Activity 1.5
(a) AI programs embody theories about intelligence and are therefore of interest to cognitive psychologists who are trying to
understand the factors (knowledge structures and processes) underlying human intelligence.
(b) AI can be viewed as an applied area of cognitive psychology in which intelligent artefacts based on aspects of human intelligence
are created.
Activity 1.6
Searle invokes a thought experiment, which he calls the Chinese room argument. He asks us to imagine a man inside a cubicle shut
out from the outside world with which he can only communicate via a small slot in the room's wall. The man knows no Chinese but has
a comprehensive set of Chinese symbols and a complete set of instructions, in English, for manipulating and combining Chinese
characters. The man passes combinations of symbols through the slot and receives other combinations via the same slot, which he
then manipulates with the aid of his instructions.
PYC3713: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY SUMMARY AND QUESTIONS
CHAPTER 1
1. Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mind.
2. The mind creates and controls mental capacities such as perception, attention and memory, and creates representations
of the world that enable us to function.
3. The work of Donders (simple vs choice reaction time) and Ebbinghaus (the forgetting curve for nonsense syllables) are
examples of early experimental research on the mind.
4. Because the operation of the mind cannot be observed directly, its operation must be inferred from what we can measure,
such as behaviour or physiological responding. This is one of the basic principles of cognitive psychology.
5. The first laboratory of scientific psychology, founded by Wundt in 1879, was concerned largely with studying the mind.
Structuralism was the dominant theoretical approach of this laboratory, and analytic introspection was one of the major
methods used to collect data.
6. William James, in the United States, used observations of his own mind as the basis of his textbook, Principles of
Psychology
7. In the first decades of the 20th century, John Watson founded behaviourism, partly in reaction to structuralism and the
method of analytic introspection. His procedures were based on classical conditioning. Behaviourism’s central tenet was
that psychology was properly studied by measuring observable behaviour, and that invisible mental processes were not
valid topics for the study of psychology.
8. Beginning in the 1930s and 1940s, B. F. Skinner’s work on operant conditioning assured that behaviourism would be the
dominant force in psychology through the 1950s.
9. In the 1950s, a number of events occurred that led to what has been called the cognitive revolution—a decline in the
influence of behaviourism and a re-emergence of the study of the mind. These events included the following:
(a) Chomsky’s critique of Skinner’s book Verbal Behaviour; (b) the introduction of the digital computer and the idea that the
mind processes information in stages, like a computer; (c) Cherry’s dichotic listening experiments and Broadbent’s
introduction of flow diagrams to depict the processes involved in attention; and (d) interdisciplinary approaches to artificial
intelligence and information theory.
10. Models play an essential role in cognitive psychology by representing structures or processes. Structural models
represent structures in the brain and how they are connected. Process models illustrate how a process or function operates.
Resource models focus on which type and how much mental effort certain processes and tasks use. Models make
complicated systems easier to understand and often provide a starting point for research.
11. Our increased understanding of the functioning of our mind can be used to (a) design proper control panels and traffic
situations; (b) influence decision making and consumer behaviour; (c) improve protocols relating to eyewitness
interrogation; (d) develop working memory and executive-control training programmes; and (e) stimulate good practice in
education.
12. Three things that may help in learning the material in this book are (a) repeatedly return to what you have read and relate
this to previous topics; (b) do the test yourself tests at the end of each chapter and use the online self-assessment tools;
and (c) frequently ask yourself “Why?” and try to explain what you have read for yourself.
Think about it
1. The idea that we have something called “the mind” that is responsible for our thoughts and behaviour is reflected in the
many ways that the word mind can be used. A few examples of the use of mind in everyday language were cited at the
beginning of the chapter. Can you think of more examples that illustrate different uses of the word mind, and decide how
relevant each is to what you will be studying in cognitive psychology (as indicated by the table of contents of this book)?
, Page |2
2. Donders compared the results of his simple and choice reaction time experiments to infer how long it took, when given a
choice, to make the decision as to which button to push. With the knowledge of today, what could be wrong with this kind
of reasoning? What could be the consequence of this critique for our interpretation of brain imaging data?
3. Comparing the workings of our minds to how a computer processes information leaves out an important aspect of being
human; namely that we have a body! A current approach in psychology, called embodied cognition, does not see thinking
as something that is “divorced” from the body. In this view the importance of action (through a biological body) is
emphasized: “Cognition exists to guide action” and “The brain interacts with the environment”. Can you think of examples
of how action shapes perception, the self and language? Do you think that by giving “cognition” a “body,” cognitive
psychology could be integrated more with biology and other areas of psychology (for example social or clinical psychology)?
CogLab experiment
Numbers in parentheses refer to the experiment number in CogLab. Simple detection (2)
Test yourself on this chapter
• Describe the rise of behaviorism and how this has affected research on the mind.
• What is meant by “the information-processing approach”?
• What are structural and process models and how do they relate to each other?
1. How would you define the mind?
2. Why could we say that Donders and Ebbinghaus were cognitive psychologists, even though in the 19th century there was no field
called cognitive psychology?
3. Describe the rise of behaviourism and how this has affected research on the mind? 4. What is meant by “the information-processing
approach” and how is this relevant for cognitive psychology?
5. Why are models important in cognitive psychology? What are structural, process and resource models and how do they relate to
each other?
6. Describe four different everyday situations for which it is important to understand how we process information and come to certain
decisions.
Activity 1.1
In order to understand a research area, we must know what the goals of the research are. So, what are the goals of research in cognitive
psychology?
Activity 1.2
Consider the following statement:
Chomsky argued that research on the language development of young children supports Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning
because it shows that language is learned by operant conditioning.
The statement is:
1. true
2. false
Activity 1.3
In an experimental design, this is often the outcome or the variable that is being measured (e.g., score on a test).
1. extraneous variable
2. independent variable
3. dependent variable
4. confounding variable
Activity 1.4
Yaun participated in an experiment in which he saw various stimuli on a computer screen. After the experiment, Yaun was asked to
provide feedback about what he thought was going on cognitively. This would be an example of a - - - - - method.
1. naturalistic observation
2. verbal protocol
3. case study
4. psychobiological
Activity 1.5
Give two reasons why cognitive psychologists should be interested in AI.
, Page |3
Activity 1.6
How does Searle attempt to refute the possibility of an artificial intelligence program that actually converses in natural language and
understands spoken language? Before answering this question, read the additional explanation of the "Chinese room argument" in this
tutorial letter.
Activity 1.7
What is an expert system in the context of AI research? Name one of the well-known expert systems that have been developed and
explain how it is applied. Do some web searching to answer this question because the notion of an "expert system" is not explained in
CP.
Activity 1.8
What is "deep learning", and why is this machine-learning technique of relevance to cognitive psychologists? Note that deep learning
is not mentioned in the prescribed book, but this is a very "hot" topic, and just about all the large global Internet companies (e.g.,
Google, Amazon, Microsoft, Facebook) are investing heavily in research on deep learning.
Activity 1.9
In cognitive science, a distinction is drawn between "strong" and "weak" AI. First, explain what the difference is between these two
approaches to AI (do some searching on the Internet), and then discuss the following statement:
Roberto: "I think that the Turing test is a true test for artificial intelligence, and I would further argue that if a program passes the Turing
test, then that program is necessarily a manifestation of strong AI."
GLOSSARY CHECK
Briefly define the following terms in your own words and give your OWN example of each:
Analytic introspection, artificial intelligence, behaviourism, choice reaction time, classical conditioning, cognition, cognitive map,
cognitive psychology, cognitive revolution, dichotic listening, empiricist approach, information-processing approach, interleaving,
logic theorist, mind, operant conditioning, process model, reaction time, retrieval-based learning, savings, savings curve, simple
reaction time, structuralism, structural model.
FEEDBACK ON SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
Activity 1.1
One of the goals is to understand human cognition and the brain-mind relationship, and construct theories to explain
the mechanisms underlying cognitive processes. Another goal is to develop intelligent artefacts (e.g., artificial intelligence products) –
these artefacts are mostly based on theories of aspects of human cognition.
Activity 1.2
The statement is false because Chomsky wrote a very critical review of behaviourism in which he argued that Skinner’s theory of
operant conditioning cannot account satisfactorily for the ability of young children to develop language, and to use language creatively
by constructing novel sentences.
Activity 1.3
Alternative 3 is correct. The variable that is being measured is called the dependent variable, because it is assumed to be
influenced by, or "dependent" on, the variable that is being manipulated in experimental studies, the independent variable.
Activity 1.4
Alternative 2 is correct because the researchers want Yaun to describe aloud what he was thinking while the experiment was being
performed. The experimenters are therefore eliciting a verbal protocol (i.e., a verbal report) from Yaun.
Activity 1.5
(a) AI programs embody theories about intelligence and are therefore of interest to cognitive psychologists who are trying to
understand the factors (knowledge structures and processes) underlying human intelligence.
(b) AI can be viewed as an applied area of cognitive psychology in which intelligent artefacts based on aspects of human intelligence
are created.
Activity 1.6
Searle invokes a thought experiment, which he calls the Chinese room argument. He asks us to imagine a man inside a cubicle shut
out from the outside world with which he can only communicate via a small slot in the room's wall. The man knows no Chinese but has
a comprehensive set of Chinese symbols and a complete set of instructions, in English, for manipulating and combining Chinese
characters. The man passes combinations of symbols through the slot and receives other combinations via the same slot, which he
then manipulates with the aid of his instructions.
