Qualitative research methods
Nair et. al
Bleijenbergh
Articles
Lecture 1:
Chapter 1&2:
History of case studies:
-1800 first case study by French sociologist Pierre Guillaume Frederic Le Play
-his Les Ouvriers européens took 25 years of exploration of the European working
men
-His book was published in 1855 and included case studies of 57 families, each one
of them representative of a specific working class
What is a case study?
→ Robert Yin: an empirical inquiry investigating a contemporary phenomenon in its
real-life context
-investigate phenomena of interest which do not have clear boundaries separating
them from the context
→ these phenomena involve multiple causal conditions and a relatively lower
number of data points
-the appropriate selection technique is purposive rather than random (because of
small sample sizes)
Case Study Designs:
Yin (2009): Suggested four types of case study designs based on the number of
cases and sub-cases being investigated.
1. Single Holistic: Focuses on one case without sub-cases.
2. Multiple Holistic: Investigates multiple cases without sub-cases.
, 3. Single Embedded: Involves one case with multiple sub-cases or units of
analysis.
4. Multiple Embedded: Investigates multiple cases with multiple sub-cases.
Gerring (2004): Introduced a covariational typology of case study designs based on
spacase study on organizational ethnography, specifically focusing on the
relationship between workplace bullying and organizational practices, policies, and
education programs aimed at countering violence, particularly within the healthcare
sector.
Key Themes:
Aim of the Study:
The study aims to explore how the conceptualization of workplace bullying,
traditionally viewed as an individualized phenomenon, influences the development of
organizational practices. The researcher questions how organizations might respond
differently if bullying is seen not as an individual act but intertwined with broader
power relations, including issues of gender, race, and class.
Methodological Approach:
The researcher adopted a critical organizational ethnography methodology, also
drawing heavily on Institutional Ethnography (IE) and practice-based studies. These
frameworks helped focus on how institutional policies and texts shape and are
shaped by everyday activities, emphasizing the interconnectedness of organizational
practices rather than treating them as isolated events.
Organizational Context:
The study was conducted in a healthcare organization referred to as "the Hospital."
The research concentrated on a group within the hospital responsible for developing
anti-violence practices, with committee members representing various organizational
levels.
Data Collection Methods:
The primary data collection methods included participant conversations (interviews)
and textual analysis. Participant conversations were unstructured, allowing flexibility
and depth in understanding the topics. The fieldwork journal played a critical role in
recording observations and reflections throughout the research process.
Textual analysis of policies, education materials, and various organizational
documents helped uncover how bullying and violence were conceptualized within the
organizational context.
Challenges and Reflexivity:
,Accessing the organization posed initial challenges, but once approval was granted,
the researcher was invited to attend various meetings and events that provided
valuable insights.
Reflexivity was emphasized, with the researcher maintaining a field journal to track
personal biases, reactions, and how their professional experience within
organizations could influence interpretations.
Ethical Considerations:
Maintaining participant confidentiality was paramount, particularly given the sensitive
nature of the subject matter. Gender-neutral pseudonyms and plural pronouns were
used to avoid identifying participants, and detailed descriptions were carefully
moderated to maintain anonymity.
Conclusion:
The study highlights the importance of aligning methodology with the research
question and remaining open and flexible throughout the research process. The
findings contribute to understanding how broader social inequities are embedded in
workplace violence and how organizations might develop more effective
anti-violence practices by reframing their conceptualization of bullying.tial and
temporal variations.
1. Within-unit (with and without temporal/spatial variation): Examines a single
unit with or without changes over time or space.
2. Cross-sectional: Compares different cases at the same point in time.
3. Time-series cross-sectional: Combines time-series and cross-sectional
analysis across multiple cases.
4. Hierarchical: Examines multiple levels within the same study (e.g., individual
and organizational).
5. Comparative-historical: Analyzes cases across different historical periods.
6. Hierarchical time-series: Combines hierarchical and time-series analysis.
Blatter and Haverland (2012): Proposed three approaches for causal case study
research.
1. Co-variational analysis: Focuses on identifying correlations between
variables.
2. Causal-process tracing: Investigates the mechanisms and processes that lead
to an outcome.
3. Congruence analysis: Compares theoretical predictions with empirical findings
to assess the fit of a theory.
Sequencing Case Study Designs:
→ This book proposes a novel technique called sequencing case study designs,
which:
, -Focuses exclusively on qualitative case study research.
-Combines the strengths of various case study designs to meet the specific needs of
the research.
-Introduces flexibility by allowing the adaptation of designs to the unique context of
the study.
-Builds on the tradition of sequential research designs, which reconcile qualitative
and quantitative methods.
Research Questions in Case Studies
→ Research questions guide the entire qualitative research process, impacting
theoretical constructs, data collection, analysis, and conclusions. A poorly formulated
question can derail a study, but qualitative research questions can be revised during
the research process, unlike quantitative research questions (Maxwell, 2008).
Exploratory vs. Explanatory: Based on their function, research questions can be
classified into two primary categories:
1. Exploratory: Focuses on identifying and describing phenomena (e.g., "What
characterizes X/Y?").
2. Explanatory: Focuses on explaining causal relationships between variables
(e.g., "What is the effect of X on Y?" or "Why does X affect Y?").
Some methodologists suggest more categories (e.g., evaluative, descriptive,
relational), but the authors find the exploratory and explanatory categories most
useful.
Variables in Research:
→ Constructs, which are abstract ideas, need to be converted into measurable terms
(variables) for research.
-Independent variables (X): Causes or antecedents.
-Dependent variables (Y): Outcomes or effects.
There is debate on whether qualitative research should use the term "variables" or
"constructs," with some qualitative researchers preferring constructs to emphasize
the interpretive nature of their work.
Types of Research Questions:
1. Exploratory Research Questions:
Aim to describe a phenomenon without claiming causal relationships.
Example: "What were Eve's perceptions about the apple?" or "What are the
dimensions of the gender wage gap in Google?"
Nair et. al
Bleijenbergh
Articles
Lecture 1:
Chapter 1&2:
History of case studies:
-1800 first case study by French sociologist Pierre Guillaume Frederic Le Play
-his Les Ouvriers européens took 25 years of exploration of the European working
men
-His book was published in 1855 and included case studies of 57 families, each one
of them representative of a specific working class
What is a case study?
→ Robert Yin: an empirical inquiry investigating a contemporary phenomenon in its
real-life context
-investigate phenomena of interest which do not have clear boundaries separating
them from the context
→ these phenomena involve multiple causal conditions and a relatively lower
number of data points
-the appropriate selection technique is purposive rather than random (because of
small sample sizes)
Case Study Designs:
Yin (2009): Suggested four types of case study designs based on the number of
cases and sub-cases being investigated.
1. Single Holistic: Focuses on one case without sub-cases.
2. Multiple Holistic: Investigates multiple cases without sub-cases.
, 3. Single Embedded: Involves one case with multiple sub-cases or units of
analysis.
4. Multiple Embedded: Investigates multiple cases with multiple sub-cases.
Gerring (2004): Introduced a covariational typology of case study designs based on
spacase study on organizational ethnography, specifically focusing on the
relationship between workplace bullying and organizational practices, policies, and
education programs aimed at countering violence, particularly within the healthcare
sector.
Key Themes:
Aim of the Study:
The study aims to explore how the conceptualization of workplace bullying,
traditionally viewed as an individualized phenomenon, influences the development of
organizational practices. The researcher questions how organizations might respond
differently if bullying is seen not as an individual act but intertwined with broader
power relations, including issues of gender, race, and class.
Methodological Approach:
The researcher adopted a critical organizational ethnography methodology, also
drawing heavily on Institutional Ethnography (IE) and practice-based studies. These
frameworks helped focus on how institutional policies and texts shape and are
shaped by everyday activities, emphasizing the interconnectedness of organizational
practices rather than treating them as isolated events.
Organizational Context:
The study was conducted in a healthcare organization referred to as "the Hospital."
The research concentrated on a group within the hospital responsible for developing
anti-violence practices, with committee members representing various organizational
levels.
Data Collection Methods:
The primary data collection methods included participant conversations (interviews)
and textual analysis. Participant conversations were unstructured, allowing flexibility
and depth in understanding the topics. The fieldwork journal played a critical role in
recording observations and reflections throughout the research process.
Textual analysis of policies, education materials, and various organizational
documents helped uncover how bullying and violence were conceptualized within the
organizational context.
Challenges and Reflexivity:
,Accessing the organization posed initial challenges, but once approval was granted,
the researcher was invited to attend various meetings and events that provided
valuable insights.
Reflexivity was emphasized, with the researcher maintaining a field journal to track
personal biases, reactions, and how their professional experience within
organizations could influence interpretations.
Ethical Considerations:
Maintaining participant confidentiality was paramount, particularly given the sensitive
nature of the subject matter. Gender-neutral pseudonyms and plural pronouns were
used to avoid identifying participants, and detailed descriptions were carefully
moderated to maintain anonymity.
Conclusion:
The study highlights the importance of aligning methodology with the research
question and remaining open and flexible throughout the research process. The
findings contribute to understanding how broader social inequities are embedded in
workplace violence and how organizations might develop more effective
anti-violence practices by reframing their conceptualization of bullying.tial and
temporal variations.
1. Within-unit (with and without temporal/spatial variation): Examines a single
unit with or without changes over time or space.
2. Cross-sectional: Compares different cases at the same point in time.
3. Time-series cross-sectional: Combines time-series and cross-sectional
analysis across multiple cases.
4. Hierarchical: Examines multiple levels within the same study (e.g., individual
and organizational).
5. Comparative-historical: Analyzes cases across different historical periods.
6. Hierarchical time-series: Combines hierarchical and time-series analysis.
Blatter and Haverland (2012): Proposed three approaches for causal case study
research.
1. Co-variational analysis: Focuses on identifying correlations between
variables.
2. Causal-process tracing: Investigates the mechanisms and processes that lead
to an outcome.
3. Congruence analysis: Compares theoretical predictions with empirical findings
to assess the fit of a theory.
Sequencing Case Study Designs:
→ This book proposes a novel technique called sequencing case study designs,
which:
, -Focuses exclusively on qualitative case study research.
-Combines the strengths of various case study designs to meet the specific needs of
the research.
-Introduces flexibility by allowing the adaptation of designs to the unique context of
the study.
-Builds on the tradition of sequential research designs, which reconcile qualitative
and quantitative methods.
Research Questions in Case Studies
→ Research questions guide the entire qualitative research process, impacting
theoretical constructs, data collection, analysis, and conclusions. A poorly formulated
question can derail a study, but qualitative research questions can be revised during
the research process, unlike quantitative research questions (Maxwell, 2008).
Exploratory vs. Explanatory: Based on their function, research questions can be
classified into two primary categories:
1. Exploratory: Focuses on identifying and describing phenomena (e.g., "What
characterizes X/Y?").
2. Explanatory: Focuses on explaining causal relationships between variables
(e.g., "What is the effect of X on Y?" or "Why does X affect Y?").
Some methodologists suggest more categories (e.g., evaluative, descriptive,
relational), but the authors find the exploratory and explanatory categories most
useful.
Variables in Research:
→ Constructs, which are abstract ideas, need to be converted into measurable terms
(variables) for research.
-Independent variables (X): Causes or antecedents.
-Dependent variables (Y): Outcomes or effects.
There is debate on whether qualitative research should use the term "variables" or
"constructs," with some qualitative researchers preferring constructs to emphasize
the interpretive nature of their work.
Types of Research Questions:
1. Exploratory Research Questions:
Aim to describe a phenomenon without claiming causal relationships.
Example: "What were Eve's perceptions about the apple?" or "What are the
dimensions of the gender wage gap in Google?"
