FORENSICS:
Discuss the top-down approach to offender profiling [16 marks]
AO1:
- Offender profiling is an investigative tool employed by the police when solving
crimes, the main aim of which is to narrow the list of likely suspects.
- The top-down approach to offender profiling originated in the US as a result of
work carried out by the FBI in the 1970s. The behavioural science unit drew
upon data gathered from in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated
murderers including ted Bundy and Charles Manson. They then concluded
that the data could be categorised into organised or disorganised
crimes/murders. Offender profilers who use the top-down method will collect
data about a murder and then decide upon the category that the data best fits.
- The organised and disorganised distinction is based on the idea that serious
offenders have certain signature ‘ways of working’ and these generally
correlate with a particular set of social and psychological characteristics that
relate to the individual.
- Organised offenders show evidence of having planned the crime in advance.
The victim is deliberately targeted, and this suggests that the killer or rapist
has a ‘type’ of victim they seek out. The offender maintains a high degree of
control during the crime and may operate with almost detached surgical
precision. There is little evidence or clues left behind at the scene. They tend
to be of above average intelligence, in a skilled, professional occupation and
are socially and sexually competent. They are usually married and may have
children.
- In contrast, disorganised offenders show little evidence of planning,
suggesting that their offences may be spontaneous, spur-of-the-moment acts.
The crime scene tends to reflect the impulsive nature of the attack, the body is
usually left at the crime scene and there appears to have been very little
control on part of the offender. They tend to have a lower-than-average IQ, be
in unskilled work or unemployed, and often have a history of sexual
dysfunction and failed relationships. They tend to live alone and often
relatively close to where the offence took place.
- There are four main stages to constructing an FBI profile: 1. Data assimilation,
crime scene classification, crime reconstruction, profile generation.
AO3 :
- Research support: one strength of the top-down approach is that there is
support for a distinct organised category of offender. In order to rest the
organised-disorganised typology which is central to the top-down approach,
Canter et al conducted an analysis of 100 US murders each committed by a
different serial killer. A technique called smallest space analysis was used – a
statistical technique that identifies correlations across different samples of
behaviour. In this case, the analysis was used in order to assess the co-
occurrence of 39 aspects of serial killings. This included things such as
whether there was torture or restraint, whether there was an attempt to
conceal the body, the form of murder weapon used at the crime and the cause
of death. This analysis revealed that there does seem to be a subset of
features of many serial killings which matched the FBI’s typology for
, organised offenders. This suggests a key component of the FBI typology has
some validity.
- HOWEVER: many studies suggest that the organised and disorganised types
are not mutually exclusive. There are a variety of combinations that occur at
any given murder scene.
- Another strength of top-down profiling is that it can be adapted to other kinds
of crime such as burglary. Critics of top-down profiling have claimed that the
technique only applies to a limited number of crimes such as sexually
motivated murder. However, Meketa reports that top-down profiling has
recently been applied to burglary leading to an 85% rise in solved cases in
three US states. The detection method retains the organised-disorganised
distinction but also adds two new categories: interpersonal where the offender
knows their victim and steals something of significance, and opportunistic
where they are a generally inexperienced young offender. This suggest that
top-down profiling has wider application than was originally assumed.
- One limitation of top-down profiling is the evidence on which it is based. FBI
profiling was originally developed using interviews with 36 murderers in the
US – 25 of which were serial killer, the other 11 being single or double
murders. At the end of the process, 24 of these individuals were classed as
organised and 12 disorganised. Canter et al have argued that the sample was
poor, and the FBI agents did not select a random or even a large sample nor
did the sample include different kinds of offender. There was no standard set
of questions, so each interview was different and therefore not really
comparable. This suggests that top-down profiling does not have a sound,
scientific basis.
- EXTRA: personality: people’s personality and behaviour changes by situation.
Describe investigative psychology and/or geographical profiling [16 marks]
AO1:
- The aim of the bottom-up approach is to generate a picture of the offender,
their likely characteristics, routine behaviour, and social background, through
systematic analysis of evidence at the crime scene.
- Unlike the US top-down approach, an investigation using the British bottom-
up approach does not behind with fixed typologies. Instead, the profile is
‘data-drive’ and emerges as the investigator engages in deeper and more
rigorous scrutiny of the details of the offence.
- This is in order to develop a statistical database which then acts as a baseline
for comparison. Specific details about an offence or related offences can then
be matched against this database to reveal important details about the
offender, their personal history, family background, etc. this may also
determine whether a series of offences are linked in that they are likely to
have been committed by the same person.
- Central to the approach is interpersonal coherence – that the way an offender
behaves at the scene, including how they interact with the victim, may reflect
their behaviour in more everyday situations.
- The significance of time and place is also a key variable and, as in
geographical profiling below, may indicate where the offender is living. Finally,
forensic awareness describes those individuals who have been the subject of
, police interrogation before, their behaviour may denote how mindful they are
of ‘covering their tracks’.
- Geographical profiling uses information about the location of linked crime
scenes to make inferences about the likely home or operational base of an
offender – known as crime mapping and based on the principle of spatial
consistency. It can be used in conjunction with psychological theory to crate
hypotheses about how the offender is thinking as well as the motive.
- Canter and Larkin created circle theory – because the pattern of offending
forms a circle around the offender’s home base. In addition, the distribution of
offences leads us to describe an offender in one of two ways: 1. The
marauder who operates in close proximity to their home base, 2. The
commuter who is likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual
residence. This can offer the investigative team important insight into the
nature of the offence and gather important factors like their mental maps,
mode of transport, employment status, approximate age etc.
AO3:
- One strength of investigative psychology is that evidence supports its use.
Canter and Heritage conducted an analysis of 66 sexual assault cases. The
data was examined using smallest space analysis. Several behaviours were
identified as common in different samples of behaviour such as the use of
impersonal language and lack of reaction to the victim. Each individual
displayed a characteristic pattern so such behaviours and this can help
establish whether two or more offences were committed by the same person.
This supports the basic principles of investigative psychology, and that people
are consistent in their behaviour.
- HOWEVER: case linkage depends on the database, and this will only consist
of historical crimes that have been solved. The fact that they were solved may
be because it was relatively straightforward to link these crimes together in
the first place. This makes a circular argument and suggest that investigative
psychology may tell us little about crimes that have few links between them
and therefore remain unsolved.
- Another strength is evidence to support geographical profiling. Lundrigan and
Canter collated information from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in
the US. Smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour
of the killers. The location of each body disposal site created a centre of
gravity presumably because when offenders start from their home base, they
may go in a different direction each time they dispose a boy, but in the end all
these different sites create a circular effect around the home base. The
offender’s base was invariably located in the centre of the pattern. The effect
was more noticeable for offenders who travelled short distances.
- One limitation is that geographical profiling may not be sufficient on its own.
As with investigative psychology, the success of geographical profiling may be
reliant on the quality of data that the police can provide. Unfortunately,
recording of crime is not always accurate, can vary between police forces and
an estimated 75% of crimes are not even reported to the police in the first
place. This calls into question the utility of an approach that relies on the
accuracy of geographical data. Even if this information is correct, critics claim
that other factors are just as important in creating a profile, such as the timing
of the offence and the age and experience of the offender. This suggests that
Discuss the top-down approach to offender profiling [16 marks]
AO1:
- Offender profiling is an investigative tool employed by the police when solving
crimes, the main aim of which is to narrow the list of likely suspects.
- The top-down approach to offender profiling originated in the US as a result of
work carried out by the FBI in the 1970s. The behavioural science unit drew
upon data gathered from in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated
murderers including ted Bundy and Charles Manson. They then concluded
that the data could be categorised into organised or disorganised
crimes/murders. Offender profilers who use the top-down method will collect
data about a murder and then decide upon the category that the data best fits.
- The organised and disorganised distinction is based on the idea that serious
offenders have certain signature ‘ways of working’ and these generally
correlate with a particular set of social and psychological characteristics that
relate to the individual.
- Organised offenders show evidence of having planned the crime in advance.
The victim is deliberately targeted, and this suggests that the killer or rapist
has a ‘type’ of victim they seek out. The offender maintains a high degree of
control during the crime and may operate with almost detached surgical
precision. There is little evidence or clues left behind at the scene. They tend
to be of above average intelligence, in a skilled, professional occupation and
are socially and sexually competent. They are usually married and may have
children.
- In contrast, disorganised offenders show little evidence of planning,
suggesting that their offences may be spontaneous, spur-of-the-moment acts.
The crime scene tends to reflect the impulsive nature of the attack, the body is
usually left at the crime scene and there appears to have been very little
control on part of the offender. They tend to have a lower-than-average IQ, be
in unskilled work or unemployed, and often have a history of sexual
dysfunction and failed relationships. They tend to live alone and often
relatively close to where the offence took place.
- There are four main stages to constructing an FBI profile: 1. Data assimilation,
crime scene classification, crime reconstruction, profile generation.
AO3 :
- Research support: one strength of the top-down approach is that there is
support for a distinct organised category of offender. In order to rest the
organised-disorganised typology which is central to the top-down approach,
Canter et al conducted an analysis of 100 US murders each committed by a
different serial killer. A technique called smallest space analysis was used – a
statistical technique that identifies correlations across different samples of
behaviour. In this case, the analysis was used in order to assess the co-
occurrence of 39 aspects of serial killings. This included things such as
whether there was torture or restraint, whether there was an attempt to
conceal the body, the form of murder weapon used at the crime and the cause
of death. This analysis revealed that there does seem to be a subset of
features of many serial killings which matched the FBI’s typology for
, organised offenders. This suggests a key component of the FBI typology has
some validity.
- HOWEVER: many studies suggest that the organised and disorganised types
are not mutually exclusive. There are a variety of combinations that occur at
any given murder scene.
- Another strength of top-down profiling is that it can be adapted to other kinds
of crime such as burglary. Critics of top-down profiling have claimed that the
technique only applies to a limited number of crimes such as sexually
motivated murder. However, Meketa reports that top-down profiling has
recently been applied to burglary leading to an 85% rise in solved cases in
three US states. The detection method retains the organised-disorganised
distinction but also adds two new categories: interpersonal where the offender
knows their victim and steals something of significance, and opportunistic
where they are a generally inexperienced young offender. This suggest that
top-down profiling has wider application than was originally assumed.
- One limitation of top-down profiling is the evidence on which it is based. FBI
profiling was originally developed using interviews with 36 murderers in the
US – 25 of which were serial killer, the other 11 being single or double
murders. At the end of the process, 24 of these individuals were classed as
organised and 12 disorganised. Canter et al have argued that the sample was
poor, and the FBI agents did not select a random or even a large sample nor
did the sample include different kinds of offender. There was no standard set
of questions, so each interview was different and therefore not really
comparable. This suggests that top-down profiling does not have a sound,
scientific basis.
- EXTRA: personality: people’s personality and behaviour changes by situation.
Describe investigative psychology and/or geographical profiling [16 marks]
AO1:
- The aim of the bottom-up approach is to generate a picture of the offender,
their likely characteristics, routine behaviour, and social background, through
systematic analysis of evidence at the crime scene.
- Unlike the US top-down approach, an investigation using the British bottom-
up approach does not behind with fixed typologies. Instead, the profile is
‘data-drive’ and emerges as the investigator engages in deeper and more
rigorous scrutiny of the details of the offence.
- This is in order to develop a statistical database which then acts as a baseline
for comparison. Specific details about an offence or related offences can then
be matched against this database to reveal important details about the
offender, their personal history, family background, etc. this may also
determine whether a series of offences are linked in that they are likely to
have been committed by the same person.
- Central to the approach is interpersonal coherence – that the way an offender
behaves at the scene, including how they interact with the victim, may reflect
their behaviour in more everyday situations.
- The significance of time and place is also a key variable and, as in
geographical profiling below, may indicate where the offender is living. Finally,
forensic awareness describes those individuals who have been the subject of
, police interrogation before, their behaviour may denote how mindful they are
of ‘covering their tracks’.
- Geographical profiling uses information about the location of linked crime
scenes to make inferences about the likely home or operational base of an
offender – known as crime mapping and based on the principle of spatial
consistency. It can be used in conjunction with psychological theory to crate
hypotheses about how the offender is thinking as well as the motive.
- Canter and Larkin created circle theory – because the pattern of offending
forms a circle around the offender’s home base. In addition, the distribution of
offences leads us to describe an offender in one of two ways: 1. The
marauder who operates in close proximity to their home base, 2. The
commuter who is likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual
residence. This can offer the investigative team important insight into the
nature of the offence and gather important factors like their mental maps,
mode of transport, employment status, approximate age etc.
AO3:
- One strength of investigative psychology is that evidence supports its use.
Canter and Heritage conducted an analysis of 66 sexual assault cases. The
data was examined using smallest space analysis. Several behaviours were
identified as common in different samples of behaviour such as the use of
impersonal language and lack of reaction to the victim. Each individual
displayed a characteristic pattern so such behaviours and this can help
establish whether two or more offences were committed by the same person.
This supports the basic principles of investigative psychology, and that people
are consistent in their behaviour.
- HOWEVER: case linkage depends on the database, and this will only consist
of historical crimes that have been solved. The fact that they were solved may
be because it was relatively straightforward to link these crimes together in
the first place. This makes a circular argument and suggest that investigative
psychology may tell us little about crimes that have few links between them
and therefore remain unsolved.
- Another strength is evidence to support geographical profiling. Lundrigan and
Canter collated information from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in
the US. Smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour
of the killers. The location of each body disposal site created a centre of
gravity presumably because when offenders start from their home base, they
may go in a different direction each time they dispose a boy, but in the end all
these different sites create a circular effect around the home base. The
offender’s base was invariably located in the centre of the pattern. The effect
was more noticeable for offenders who travelled short distances.
- One limitation is that geographical profiling may not be sufficient on its own.
As with investigative psychology, the success of geographical profiling may be
reliant on the quality of data that the police can provide. Unfortunately,
recording of crime is not always accurate, can vary between police forces and
an estimated 75% of crimes are not even reported to the police in the first
place. This calls into question the utility of an approach that relies on the
accuracy of geographical data. Even if this information is correct, critics claim
that other factors are just as important in creating a profile, such as the timing
of the offence and the age and experience of the offender. This suggests that
