Problem 1
WORK MOTIVATION
Motivation = Condition responsible for variation in intensity, persistence, quality, and direction of ongoing
behavior – History of motivational theories:
Freud – Psychodynamic theory
o Earliest theory - Motivation focused on internal instincts, but circular and not consider
individual/environment interaction
Maslow – Need theory
o Behavior directed by unfulfilled universal internal needs (drive for animals)
Skinner – Behaviorist approach
o Behavior directed by activity on the environment rather than instincts/needs
Lewin – Field theory
o Various forces in social environment interact and combine to produce a final path of action Group
dynamics
THE IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION
In performance: The performance is zero if the motivation is zero
Performance = (Motivation x Ability) - Situational Constraints
In work-life balance and personality: Locus of control (LOC)
o Internal LOC = Individuals view events as resulting from their actions
o External LOC = Individual attribute events to outside causes
PERSON-AS-MACHINE THEORIES
Motivation is pushed by internal needs and actions are
unconsciously performed because of external environmental stimuli
reinforcements
MASLOW’S NEED THEORY
Focus on human development - Humans have needs expressed
during their life span, arranged in a hierarchy in which the lower has
precedence over the higher and if a lower-level need reemerge, the
person would satisfy that need first
1. Physiological needs
2. Security needs
3. Love or social needs
4. Esteem needs
5. Self-actualization needs
, HERZBERG TWO-FACTORS THEORY – (Variation of Maslow’s theory)
Humans have two basic needs independent from each other
Hygiene needs = Needs to eliminate dissatisfaction which does not result in positive satisfaction or
motivated behavior (Maslow’s physical and security needs)
Motivator needs = Positive satisfaction (Maslow’s social, esteem, and actualization needs)
SKINNER REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Behaviorism theory (or reinforcement) proposed that behavior depends on stimulus, response, and reward
Rewards can be contingent: they depend on the response
Schedule:
Intermittent rewards: only some of the correct responses are rewarded (higher performance)
Continues rewards: all the correct responses are rewarded
Critics: Fails to acknowledge higher mental activities (e.g. reasoning or judgment)
PERSON-AS-SCIENTIST THEORIES
People seek knowledge to master the environment – They develop goals and action plans but are not perfectly
rational Limited rationality in reason and decision making
VROOM’S VIE THEORY (OR EXPECTANCY THEORY)
Behavior is directed by its expected results VIE
Valence: The strength of a person’s preference for a particular outcome (e.g. money)
Instrumentality: Perceived relationship between performance and the attainment of an outcome (e.g.
promotion)
Expectancy: Individual’s belief that increased effort leads to successful performance
Overall force = Expectancy x (valence x instrumentalities)
Critics: personality and emotions ignored
EQUITY THEORY
, Festinger dissonance theory = There is tension when there are dissonant cognitions – A person tries to
“balance” them -> Adam was inspired by it and transplanted the dissonance theory into equity theory
Individuals compare inputs and outputs of their world (e.g. effort vs compensation)
Individuals then compare inputs and outputs with others (e.g. coworkers) by developing a ratio
There is equity with your own inputs/outputs are the same as other, not less or more
Critics: input/outputs are subjective and the theory neglect justice dimension
PERSON-AS-INTENTIONAL (JUDGE)
People are intentional in their behavior and seek information about are they are perceived for positive and
negative events
GOAL-SETTING THEORY
Locke - Behavior is directed by the nature of our internal and external goals which influence a performance -
Difficult goals lead to higher levels of performance
Goal acceptance – A goal has been assigned
Goal commitment – A goal has been assigned and includes self-goals
Goals affect performances in:
1. Direction – Directing attention and action
2. Effort – Energy expenditure or effort
3. Persistence – Prolonging effort overtime
4. Strategy – Motivating the individual to develop strategies for goal attainment
o Feedback loop – Regular feedback should be provided throughout the goal-achieving process to ensure
tasks stay on track to reach the goal
o Control theory - Individual compares a standard to actual outcome and adjusts behavior in order to bring
the outcome in agreement with the standard (goal vs outcome)
CONTROL THEORIES AND SELF-REGULATION CONCEPT
Self-regulation: Individuals take in information about their behavior and alter it accordingly. These
changes, affect subsequent behavior.
An individual can increase both work motivation and work performance by engaging in strategies (as
feedback) and constructive changes
WORK MOTIVATION
Motivation = Condition responsible for variation in intensity, persistence, quality, and direction of ongoing
behavior – History of motivational theories:
Freud – Psychodynamic theory
o Earliest theory - Motivation focused on internal instincts, but circular and not consider
individual/environment interaction
Maslow – Need theory
o Behavior directed by unfulfilled universal internal needs (drive for animals)
Skinner – Behaviorist approach
o Behavior directed by activity on the environment rather than instincts/needs
Lewin – Field theory
o Various forces in social environment interact and combine to produce a final path of action Group
dynamics
THE IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION
In performance: The performance is zero if the motivation is zero
Performance = (Motivation x Ability) - Situational Constraints
In work-life balance and personality: Locus of control (LOC)
o Internal LOC = Individuals view events as resulting from their actions
o External LOC = Individual attribute events to outside causes
PERSON-AS-MACHINE THEORIES
Motivation is pushed by internal needs and actions are
unconsciously performed because of external environmental stimuli
reinforcements
MASLOW’S NEED THEORY
Focus on human development - Humans have needs expressed
during their life span, arranged in a hierarchy in which the lower has
precedence over the higher and if a lower-level need reemerge, the
person would satisfy that need first
1. Physiological needs
2. Security needs
3. Love or social needs
4. Esteem needs
5. Self-actualization needs
, HERZBERG TWO-FACTORS THEORY – (Variation of Maslow’s theory)
Humans have two basic needs independent from each other
Hygiene needs = Needs to eliminate dissatisfaction which does not result in positive satisfaction or
motivated behavior (Maslow’s physical and security needs)
Motivator needs = Positive satisfaction (Maslow’s social, esteem, and actualization needs)
SKINNER REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Behaviorism theory (or reinforcement) proposed that behavior depends on stimulus, response, and reward
Rewards can be contingent: they depend on the response
Schedule:
Intermittent rewards: only some of the correct responses are rewarded (higher performance)
Continues rewards: all the correct responses are rewarded
Critics: Fails to acknowledge higher mental activities (e.g. reasoning or judgment)
PERSON-AS-SCIENTIST THEORIES
People seek knowledge to master the environment – They develop goals and action plans but are not perfectly
rational Limited rationality in reason and decision making
VROOM’S VIE THEORY (OR EXPECTANCY THEORY)
Behavior is directed by its expected results VIE
Valence: The strength of a person’s preference for a particular outcome (e.g. money)
Instrumentality: Perceived relationship between performance and the attainment of an outcome (e.g.
promotion)
Expectancy: Individual’s belief that increased effort leads to successful performance
Overall force = Expectancy x (valence x instrumentalities)
Critics: personality and emotions ignored
EQUITY THEORY
, Festinger dissonance theory = There is tension when there are dissonant cognitions – A person tries to
“balance” them -> Adam was inspired by it and transplanted the dissonance theory into equity theory
Individuals compare inputs and outputs of their world (e.g. effort vs compensation)
Individuals then compare inputs and outputs with others (e.g. coworkers) by developing a ratio
There is equity with your own inputs/outputs are the same as other, not less or more
Critics: input/outputs are subjective and the theory neglect justice dimension
PERSON-AS-INTENTIONAL (JUDGE)
People are intentional in their behavior and seek information about are they are perceived for positive and
negative events
GOAL-SETTING THEORY
Locke - Behavior is directed by the nature of our internal and external goals which influence a performance -
Difficult goals lead to higher levels of performance
Goal acceptance – A goal has been assigned
Goal commitment – A goal has been assigned and includes self-goals
Goals affect performances in:
1. Direction – Directing attention and action
2. Effort – Energy expenditure or effort
3. Persistence – Prolonging effort overtime
4. Strategy – Motivating the individual to develop strategies for goal attainment
o Feedback loop – Regular feedback should be provided throughout the goal-achieving process to ensure
tasks stay on track to reach the goal
o Control theory - Individual compares a standard to actual outcome and adjusts behavior in order to bring
the outcome in agreement with the standard (goal vs outcome)
CONTROL THEORIES AND SELF-REGULATION CONCEPT
Self-regulation: Individuals take in information about their behavior and alter it accordingly. These
changes, affect subsequent behavior.
An individual can increase both work motivation and work performance by engaging in strategies (as
feedback) and constructive changes
