L1 The Mind body problem – What is the mind
- Mental states have the property of being about something
o The things we think about are not actually in our thoughts, our thoughts just refer to
them
- Contemporary theories of the mind are responses to the idea that the mind resides in an
immaterial soul that is distinguishable from the body
Substance dualism
- Theory by René Descartes
- Foundation for many other theories
- People consist of a material body and an immaterial soul
o mind is a non-physical substance, a soul that is causally connected to the body
o If the mind is a non-material soul it does not need a brain to exist
- Mind: umbrella-term for all mental states
- Mental: 1. Intentional and/or 2. Phenomenal
o 1. Referring to something outside the mind
o 2. All conscious states fall in that class
most mental states have both properties
Doubt as argument for substance dualism
- Descartes believes that it could be possible that everything that exists is our experience of
the world and our bodies, but not these things themselves
o “There is only one thing we cannot doubt, when we doubt so radically, namely that
there is something or someone who is currently doubting”
o To Descartes doubt is a form of thought and he builds his worldview on this: I think /
I doubt therefore I exist (Cogito ergo sum)
- Leibniz theory sees proof for Dualism in Descartes Cogito argument
o Theory: we can only say that x is really the same as y, if x and y share all their
properties (also property of space and time which would make them one)
o Therefore, Descartes thinking “I” cannot be the same as a material body or brain
since we can doubt the existence of our own bodies and brains but not our own
existence as thinking things
“I” therefore has a property our brains lack which means they must be
entities distinct from our brain
Two features of cartesian dualism
- The immateriality of the soul
o People consist of two separate parts
- Separation of the outside world and the inside mind
o Thinking “I” is separated from the outside world and connected only indirectly to it
through the senses and behavior
o Knowledge of the world resides in the mind as ideas, thought is the manipulation of
these ideas
o Many philosophers still believe in this feature
1
,Property dualism
- the mind is produced by the physical brain, but some of its properties (phenomenal
properties) are non-physical
o Accepted by some people today
o Some things can be physically explained while others cannot
Psychological behaviorism – problems
Methodological problems with dualism
- Descartes believes that material objects cannot think which is nowadays being refuted
- The argument of doubting and of Leibniz theory can be refuted since what someone thinks
about x should not be considered a property of it
o Ontology – the study of what really exists
o Epistemology – the study of what we know and how we can know it
the argument draws an ontological conclusion from an epistemological difference
- Dualism implies introspection as the only feasible scientific methodology
o Introspection is neither objective nor intersubjective
- Unconscious mental states cannot be topics of scientific research
response to problems: redefine psychology as a behavioral science (Watson)
The interaction problem
- How can mind and body interact if they are so different?
- According to Descartes they interact in pineal glands in brain (only hypothesis, not observed)
o Descartes thought he had an argument that proved the mind is immaterial
(nowadays argument is not valid anymore but he thought it was)
o He never observed this but he argued that just because he has not found proof it
does not mean there won’t be proof for it in the future
- Causal closeness of the physical realm
o anything that happens in the physical realm has a physical cause we can identify (or
still have to identify) every physical event has a physical explanation
o Pineal glands are part of the physical realm which means the mind would be
irrelevant because anything that happens, happens because of physical forces and
not the mind
Logical behaviorism
- Not a response to methodological problems with dualism
- Response to theoretical problems with dualism
- Previous Belief:
o Mind and body have been depicted as puppeteer (soul) and puppet (the body) this is
wrong in the eyes of this theory
o We think we need to explain the difference between intelligent and non-intelligent
behavior
Intelligent behavior is caused by a soul
When the body is doing something without control of the soul it causes non-
intelligent behavior
2
, - Logical behaviorism: We already know what the difference between intelligent and
unintelligent behavior is. Why do we need to make a further distinction and explain the
behavior with the soul?
o Mind is a word for intelligent behavior not a hidden cause of it therefore it is
unnecessary to make a distinction
- “The Concept of Mind” by Gilbert Ryle
o Conceptual analysis of mind by looking at language and how people use the word
mind
o Mind is not “a thing” (category mistakes)
Behavioral dispositions are not “a thing”
o Mental states are behavioral dispositions
Mental states refer to a tendency to act in a certain way under certain
circumstances
Disposition leads to behavior, behavior ≠ disposition
Comparison psychological behaviorism and logical behaviorism
- Both have behaviorism in center of theory
- Psychological behaviorism
o says that there is the mind and behavior, however they only focus on behavior and
ignore the mind in favor of behavior
o acceptance of scheme from substance dualism
- Logical behaviorism
o Do not deny mind, they defined the mind in terms of behavior
Problems with logical behaviorism
- Example of perception of pain:
o Super stoic someone who is trained and can be tortured but does not show any
pain
o Perfect pretender someone who can pretend and act out perfectly that they have
pain without actually having any
o Mental state of being in pain cannot be captured in behavioral terms
- Inner experiential aspect of mind is not captured well by logical behaviorism
- Mental holism mental states and behavior are not a simple equation, often multiple
explanations are possible
o Example: you pick up a glass and drink water. Explanations: you are thirsty, you are
suicidal and think there is poison in the glass etc.
- Connection between mind and behavior is not causal but conceptual
o We can make a distinction between intelligent and non-intelligent behavior before
we attempt to back this explanation up by a causal explanation
o Conceptual connections (difference between intelligent and non-intelligent behavior)
do not rule out causal connections (both behaviors may have different causes, the
one for intelligent behavior might be “the mind”)
Identity theory
- Theory has been thought to be the best alternative to substance dualism
3
- Mental states have the property of being about something
o The things we think about are not actually in our thoughts, our thoughts just refer to
them
- Contemporary theories of the mind are responses to the idea that the mind resides in an
immaterial soul that is distinguishable from the body
Substance dualism
- Theory by René Descartes
- Foundation for many other theories
- People consist of a material body and an immaterial soul
o mind is a non-physical substance, a soul that is causally connected to the body
o If the mind is a non-material soul it does not need a brain to exist
- Mind: umbrella-term for all mental states
- Mental: 1. Intentional and/or 2. Phenomenal
o 1. Referring to something outside the mind
o 2. All conscious states fall in that class
most mental states have both properties
Doubt as argument for substance dualism
- Descartes believes that it could be possible that everything that exists is our experience of
the world and our bodies, but not these things themselves
o “There is only one thing we cannot doubt, when we doubt so radically, namely that
there is something or someone who is currently doubting”
o To Descartes doubt is a form of thought and he builds his worldview on this: I think /
I doubt therefore I exist (Cogito ergo sum)
- Leibniz theory sees proof for Dualism in Descartes Cogito argument
o Theory: we can only say that x is really the same as y, if x and y share all their
properties (also property of space and time which would make them one)
o Therefore, Descartes thinking “I” cannot be the same as a material body or brain
since we can doubt the existence of our own bodies and brains but not our own
existence as thinking things
“I” therefore has a property our brains lack which means they must be
entities distinct from our brain
Two features of cartesian dualism
- The immateriality of the soul
o People consist of two separate parts
- Separation of the outside world and the inside mind
o Thinking “I” is separated from the outside world and connected only indirectly to it
through the senses and behavior
o Knowledge of the world resides in the mind as ideas, thought is the manipulation of
these ideas
o Many philosophers still believe in this feature
1
,Property dualism
- the mind is produced by the physical brain, but some of its properties (phenomenal
properties) are non-physical
o Accepted by some people today
o Some things can be physically explained while others cannot
Psychological behaviorism – problems
Methodological problems with dualism
- Descartes believes that material objects cannot think which is nowadays being refuted
- The argument of doubting and of Leibniz theory can be refuted since what someone thinks
about x should not be considered a property of it
o Ontology – the study of what really exists
o Epistemology – the study of what we know and how we can know it
the argument draws an ontological conclusion from an epistemological difference
- Dualism implies introspection as the only feasible scientific methodology
o Introspection is neither objective nor intersubjective
- Unconscious mental states cannot be topics of scientific research
response to problems: redefine psychology as a behavioral science (Watson)
The interaction problem
- How can mind and body interact if they are so different?
- According to Descartes they interact in pineal glands in brain (only hypothesis, not observed)
o Descartes thought he had an argument that proved the mind is immaterial
(nowadays argument is not valid anymore but he thought it was)
o He never observed this but he argued that just because he has not found proof it
does not mean there won’t be proof for it in the future
- Causal closeness of the physical realm
o anything that happens in the physical realm has a physical cause we can identify (or
still have to identify) every physical event has a physical explanation
o Pineal glands are part of the physical realm which means the mind would be
irrelevant because anything that happens, happens because of physical forces and
not the mind
Logical behaviorism
- Not a response to methodological problems with dualism
- Response to theoretical problems with dualism
- Previous Belief:
o Mind and body have been depicted as puppeteer (soul) and puppet (the body) this is
wrong in the eyes of this theory
o We think we need to explain the difference between intelligent and non-intelligent
behavior
Intelligent behavior is caused by a soul
When the body is doing something without control of the soul it causes non-
intelligent behavior
2
, - Logical behaviorism: We already know what the difference between intelligent and
unintelligent behavior is. Why do we need to make a further distinction and explain the
behavior with the soul?
o Mind is a word for intelligent behavior not a hidden cause of it therefore it is
unnecessary to make a distinction
- “The Concept of Mind” by Gilbert Ryle
o Conceptual analysis of mind by looking at language and how people use the word
mind
o Mind is not “a thing” (category mistakes)
Behavioral dispositions are not “a thing”
o Mental states are behavioral dispositions
Mental states refer to a tendency to act in a certain way under certain
circumstances
Disposition leads to behavior, behavior ≠ disposition
Comparison psychological behaviorism and logical behaviorism
- Both have behaviorism in center of theory
- Psychological behaviorism
o says that there is the mind and behavior, however they only focus on behavior and
ignore the mind in favor of behavior
o acceptance of scheme from substance dualism
- Logical behaviorism
o Do not deny mind, they defined the mind in terms of behavior
Problems with logical behaviorism
- Example of perception of pain:
o Super stoic someone who is trained and can be tortured but does not show any
pain
o Perfect pretender someone who can pretend and act out perfectly that they have
pain without actually having any
o Mental state of being in pain cannot be captured in behavioral terms
- Inner experiential aspect of mind is not captured well by logical behaviorism
- Mental holism mental states and behavior are not a simple equation, often multiple
explanations are possible
o Example: you pick up a glass and drink water. Explanations: you are thirsty, you are
suicidal and think there is poison in the glass etc.
- Connection between mind and behavior is not causal but conceptual
o We can make a distinction between intelligent and non-intelligent behavior before
we attempt to back this explanation up by a causal explanation
o Conceptual connections (difference between intelligent and non-intelligent behavior)
do not rule out causal connections (both behaviors may have different causes, the
one for intelligent behavior might be “the mind”)
Identity theory
- Theory has been thought to be the best alternative to substance dualism
3
