Social Research Methodology Full Summary

EXAM
Social Research Methodology

Content:
1. Social Research
a. Theory
b. Ontology and Epistemology
c. The Process
i. Research Questions

2. Research Designs
a. How many cases?
i. Case Study
ii. Comparative
b. The Role of Time
i. Cross-sectional
ii. Longitudinal
c. Manipulation?
i. Experimental
ii. Non-experimental
d. Quality Criteria

3. Quantitative Research
a. Quantitative Research
b. Sampling
c. Survey Research
i. Formulating Questions
d. Structured Observation and Reactivity
e. Content Analysis
f. Using existing data
i. “Big Data”

4. Qualitative Research
a. Qualitative Research
b. Quality Criteria
c. Methods
i. Sampling
ii. Interviews
iii. Ethnography
iv. Focus Groups

5. Ethical and Political Aspects of Research




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,Social Research
Determining differences of social scientific research:
 Systematic: Deliberate planning; following a process
 Empirical: The data ultimately decides
 Transparent: Verifiable and controllable: Clarifications and reflections about the establishment of
the knowledge. A need for flexibility and perseverance!

Theory
Two approaches:

A. Deductive
 Theory  Observations and findings
 Derive concrete hypothesis from general theory

B. Inductive
 Observations and findings  Theory
 Outcome of research creates theory
 “The induction problem”: We cannot learn from confirmatory observations.

X. Iterative strategy
 Back and forth between data and theory
 Iteration = repetition
 Refining or retesting theory
 Used in Grounded theory
 Starts with observations

Ontology and Epistemology
Ontology: Reality
Constructionism
 Social phenomena and meanings are accomplished by social actors
 They are produced through social interaction and are constantly reproduced
 Social objects and categories are socially constructed

Objectivism
 Social phenomena and meanings have an independent existence from social actors

Epistemology
 Knowledge
 How to obtain knowledge?
 Rationalism; thinking: Knowledge through logical reasoning.
 Empiricism; senses: Knowledge through observation and experiences.

Interpretivism
 Understanding: “Verstehen” (empathic understanding)
 Respects differences between people and objects of natural sciences
 Requires social scientists to grasp subjective meanings and worldviews
 Gain access to interpretations and worldviews
 Idiographic: Descriptions of unique cases and processes
 Closely related to:
o Hermeneutics: the study of interpretation
o Phenomenology: the study of people’s meaning-making
 Researchers present their version of that reality; double interpretation.
 Relativistic: All moral values are equally valid.
 Reflexive: Awareness of biases and values and the influence on your research. Honesty about how
it may have affected it.
Positivism
 Explaining: “Erklären”

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,  Application of natural sciences methods to study of social reality
 Searching for nomothetic explanations: universal laws and causal generalizations
 Empiricist: Only observed phenomena, through senses, is warranted as knowledge
 Deductive in its purpose of theory as to generate testable hypotheses
 Inductive in its arrival at knowledge through gathering facts and falsifying
 Value free and objective science based on facts
 Clear distinction between scientific statements and normative statements. The former is true
for a scientist; the latter cannot be confirmed by the senses.

Karl Popper vs. Thomas Kuhn
 Popper
o Objectivist
o Falsification solves the induction problem
 Kuhn
o Constructivist
o Scientific revolution is the transition from one paradigm to another
o Paradigms are incommensurable

Social science is pre-paradigmatic. Scholars still disagree about fundamental assumptions. There is no
single view on epistemology or methodology.

The Process
1. Research question
2. Literature review
3. Concepts and theory
4. Selection of research units (Research Design)
5. Data Collection
6. Data Analysis
7. Writing up

The Empirical Research Cycle: Evaluation and writing leads to new research questions. Theory is in
the center: it always plays a role.

Research Questions
 Explicit statement of what you want to find out.
 Always formulate research questions. Clear focus.
 Questions, hypothesis, statement
 Determines the process and influences all phases
o Which literature
o The Design
o Analysis
o Conclusions
 A process of narrowing down
o Research area  Aspect of area  Research Questions  Select questions
o The questions should be related to one another, if not you risk lack of focus.

 Key Terms; Social Research:
 Deduction
 Induction
 The induction Problem
 Iterative
 The Empirical Research Cycle
General types of questions:
 Exploratory

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, o Explore phenomenon
o Little is known on beforehand
 Descriptive
o Describe the amount or perception of something
o Clear definitions
o I.e.: “How many students?
 Explanatory
o To what extent can y be explained by x?
o “Why”?
 Evaluative
o “How effective”?
o Evaluation of an influence or intervention

Criteria:
 Clear
 Researchable
 Connected to established theory and research
 Linked to each other
 Original contribution
 Neither too broad nor too narrow
 Justified
o How they emerged
o Importance
o Demonstrated link with literature

Important notions:
 Qualitative researchers ds not always generate theory; and its often already in the background.
 Quantitative researchers also sometimes collect data first.
 Values and personal opinions:
1. Value free and objective.
2. Relativist and reflexive.
3. Conscious partiality: Explain, understand, change!

Research Designs
How many cases?
Case Study
 Detailed and intensive analysis of one case
 Multiple interviewees; multiple data sources
 What exactly are the cases?
 Subcategory: Biographical
 Critical issue: Transferability (External validity)
 Credibility is more important: How believable is the generated theory?
 Detailed, believable description of the case
 A case study is not a sample of one; the findings aim to generalize to theory; not to a population.
The quality of the theoretical inference are crucial.

Comparative Study
 Extension of case study: Same methods to compare one or two cases
 Extension of Survey Research: Two or more cross-national studies
o Often involves cross-national/cross-cultural comparisons
 Advantage: Test of general theory and generalizability; “reduce the risk of failing to appreciate
cultural specific findings”
 Disadvantage: Less attention for particularities in each case. Are they comparable?
The Role of Time
Cross-Sectional
 “Snapshot” at one single point in time

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