BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Chapter 1 Introduction
Behavior- is anything that a person says or does
Overt behavior- behaviors that could be observed and recorded by an individual other than the one
performing the behavior
Covert behavior- behavior that cannot be observed and recorded by others
Dimensions of behavior- can be measured in three dimensions namely
- Duration: the length of time that it lasts
- Rate: the number of instances that occur in a given period of time
- Intensity: or force of a behavior refers to the physical effort or energy involved in emitting
the behavior
Behavior deficit- too little behavior of a particular type
Behavior excess- too much behavior of a particular type
Behavior modification- involves the systematic application of learning principles and techniques to
assess and improve the overt and covert behaviors of individuals in order to enhance their daily
functioning
Seven main characteristics of behavior modification
1. its strong emphasis on defining problems in terms of behavior that can be measured in some
way and using changes in the behavioral measure of the problem as the best indicator of the
extent to which the problem is being helped
2. its treatment procedures and techniques are ways of altering an individual’s current
environment
a. stimuli are the people, objects, and events currently present in one’s immediate
surroundings that impinge on one’s sense receptors and that can affect behavior
3. its methods and rationales can be described precisely
4. is that the techniques of behavior modification are often applied by individuals in everyday
life
5. the techniques stem from basic and applied research in the science of learning
6. behavior modification emphasizes scientific demonstration that a particular intervention or
treatment was responsible for a particular behavior change
7. it places high value on accountability for everyone involved in behavior modification
programs
target behaviors- behaviors to be improved in a behavior modification program
Behavioral assessment- involves the collection and analysis of information and data in order to (a)
identify and describe target behaviors; (b) identify possible causes of the behavior; (c) guide the
selection of an appropriate behavioral treatment; and (d) evaluate treatment outcome
The term behavior analysis refers to the study of the scientific laws that govern the behavior of
human beings and other animals. As mentioned above, the terms applied behavior analysis and
,behavior modification are often used interchangeably. Many individuals who specialize in these areas
call themselves applied behavior analysts. The terms behavior therapy and cognitive behavior
therapy are often also used interchangeably. However, many individuals who practice behavior
therapy or cognitive behavior therapy would not consider themselves to be applied behavior
analysts, nor would they likely be considered as such by the majority of certified behavior analysts.
Chapter 3 Defining, measuring and recording target
behavior
Behavior modification program involves five phases
1. Screening or Intake Phase
a. to determine whether a particular agency or behavior modifier is the appropriate one to
deal with a potential client’s behavior
b. to inform the client about the agency’s or practitioner’s policies and procedures for the
services provided
c. to screen for a crisis condition, such as child abuse or suicide risk, that might require
immediate intervention
d. to gather sufficient information to diagnose the client according to the standardized
categories of mental disorder, such as those listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed.
e. to provide initial information about which behavior(s) should be assessed.
2. Defining the target behavior phase
3. A pre-program or baseline-assessment phase
a. applied behavior analyst or behavior therapist assesses the target behavior to (a)
determine its level prior to the introduction of the program or treatment, and (b) analyze
the individual’s current environment to identify possible controlling variables—or, less
technically—“causes” of the behavior to be changed
4. Treatment Phase
a. behavior therapist will design and apply a program to bring about the desired behavior
change
5. Follow-up Phase
a. is conducted to determine whether the improvements achieved during treatment are
maintained after the program’s termination
Indirect Assessment Procedures- assessments for which the behavior modifier or a trained observer
does not directly observe the target behavior in the situation in which the behavior occurs
Advantage: of being convenient, not requiring an inordinate amount of time, and potentially
providing information about covert behaviors
Disadvantage: providing information might not remember relevant observations accurately
or have biases that would influence them to provide inaccurate data
- Interviews With the Client and Significant Others
- Questionnaires
- Role-playing
Direct Assessment Procedures- assessments in which the behavior modifier or a trained observer
directly observes and records the target behaviors in the actual settings in which the behavior occurs
, Advantage- they are more accurate than indirect assessment procedures, which is the main
reason that applied behavior analysts prefer to use direct assessment procedures whenever possible
Disadvantage- they are time consuming, require that observers be appropriately trained, and
cannot be used to monitor covert behaviors
Experimental Assessment Procedures- are used to clearly reveal the environmental causes of
problem behavior in order to reduce or remove these causes
Characteristics of behavior for direct assessment
1. Topography- the specific movements involved in making the response
2. Frequency or rate- the number of instances of a behavior that occur in a given period of time
3. Duration- the length of time from the beginning to the end of an episode of behavior
4. Intensity magnitude, or force of a response
5. Stimulus control- the degree of correlation between the occurrence of a given event and a
response quickly following that even
6. Latency- the time between the occurrence of a particular event or cue and the start of that
behavior
7. Quality- essentially an arbitrary—and often subjective—designation of one or more of the
previously mentioned characteristics of behavior that has functional or social value
Strategies for recording behavior
Continuous or event-frequency recording is the recording of every instance of a behavior during a
designated observation period.
Interval recording registers the target behavior as either occurring or not occurring during short
intervals of equal duration—e.g., intervals of 10 seconds—during the specified observation period
such as 30 minutes
Partial-interval recording registers the target behavior a maximum of once per interval
regardless of how many times the behavior occurs during each interval and regardless of the
behavior’s duration
Whole-interval recording denotes the target behavior as occurring during an interval only if
the behavior persists throughout the entire interval
Time-sampling recording scores a behavior as occurring or not occurring during very brief
observation intervals that are separated from each other by a much longer period of time
Assessing the accuracy of observations
, First, the response definition might be vague, subjective, or incomplete, so that the observer has
problems making accurate observations. Second, the observational situation might be such that an
observer has difficulty detecting the behavior because of distractions or other obstructions to the
observing process or because the behavior is too subtle or complex to be observed accurately in that
situation. Third, the observer might be poorly trained, unmotivated, or biased. Two other possible
categories of error are poorly designed data sheets and cumbersome recording procedures.
Kazdin (2011, pp. 114–120) detailed five sources of bias and artifact that can influence an observer:
Reactivity refers to the fact that observers tend to be less accurate if they are unaware they are
being monitored.
- Observer drift is the tendency for an observer’s definition of the target behavior to gradually
shift away from the definition the observer was originally given.
- Observer expectancy refers to the tendency for the observations to inaccurately show
improvement in the target behavior as a function of the observer expecting the behavior to
improve.
- Feedback refers to the tendency of the observations to be influenced by positive or negative
feedback inadvertently provided to the observer by his or her supervisor.
- Complexity refers to the tendency for observations to be less accurate if the definition of the
target response has many parts or the observer is required to observe multiple behaviors at
the same time.
Because any one or combination of the above categories and sources of error might be present in
any behavior modification project, behavior modifiers frequently conduct interobserver agreement
or IOA estimates (also called interobserver reliability or IOR estimates).
Chapter 6 Increasing a behavior with positive
reinforcement
Positive reinforcer- anything that, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the
behavior to increase in frequency
Positive reinforcement- if someone in a given situation does something that is followed immediately
by a positive reinforcer, then that person is more likely to do the same thing the next time he or she
encounters a similar situation
Operant behaviors or operant responses- behaviors that operate on the environment to generate
consequences and are in turn influenced by those consequences
Negative reinforcement- (escape conditioning) states that the removal of aversive stimuli
immediately after the occurrence of a response will increase the likelihood of that response
Factors influencing the effectiveness of positive reinforcement
1. Selecting the behavior to be increased- being specific, you (a) help to ensure the reliability of
detecting instances of the behavior and changes in its frequency, which is the measure by which
one judges reinforcer effectiveness, and (b) increase the likelihood that the reinforcement
program will be applied consistently.
2. Choosing reinforcers
a. Classification of reinforcers
Chapter 1 Introduction
Behavior- is anything that a person says or does
Overt behavior- behaviors that could be observed and recorded by an individual other than the one
performing the behavior
Covert behavior- behavior that cannot be observed and recorded by others
Dimensions of behavior- can be measured in three dimensions namely
- Duration: the length of time that it lasts
- Rate: the number of instances that occur in a given period of time
- Intensity: or force of a behavior refers to the physical effort or energy involved in emitting
the behavior
Behavior deficit- too little behavior of a particular type
Behavior excess- too much behavior of a particular type
Behavior modification- involves the systematic application of learning principles and techniques to
assess and improve the overt and covert behaviors of individuals in order to enhance their daily
functioning
Seven main characteristics of behavior modification
1. its strong emphasis on defining problems in terms of behavior that can be measured in some
way and using changes in the behavioral measure of the problem as the best indicator of the
extent to which the problem is being helped
2. its treatment procedures and techniques are ways of altering an individual’s current
environment
a. stimuli are the people, objects, and events currently present in one’s immediate
surroundings that impinge on one’s sense receptors and that can affect behavior
3. its methods and rationales can be described precisely
4. is that the techniques of behavior modification are often applied by individuals in everyday
life
5. the techniques stem from basic and applied research in the science of learning
6. behavior modification emphasizes scientific demonstration that a particular intervention or
treatment was responsible for a particular behavior change
7. it places high value on accountability for everyone involved in behavior modification
programs
target behaviors- behaviors to be improved in a behavior modification program
Behavioral assessment- involves the collection and analysis of information and data in order to (a)
identify and describe target behaviors; (b) identify possible causes of the behavior; (c) guide the
selection of an appropriate behavioral treatment; and (d) evaluate treatment outcome
The term behavior analysis refers to the study of the scientific laws that govern the behavior of
human beings and other animals. As mentioned above, the terms applied behavior analysis and
,behavior modification are often used interchangeably. Many individuals who specialize in these areas
call themselves applied behavior analysts. The terms behavior therapy and cognitive behavior
therapy are often also used interchangeably. However, many individuals who practice behavior
therapy or cognitive behavior therapy would not consider themselves to be applied behavior
analysts, nor would they likely be considered as such by the majority of certified behavior analysts.
Chapter 3 Defining, measuring and recording target
behavior
Behavior modification program involves five phases
1. Screening or Intake Phase
a. to determine whether a particular agency or behavior modifier is the appropriate one to
deal with a potential client’s behavior
b. to inform the client about the agency’s or practitioner’s policies and procedures for the
services provided
c. to screen for a crisis condition, such as child abuse or suicide risk, that might require
immediate intervention
d. to gather sufficient information to diagnose the client according to the standardized
categories of mental disorder, such as those listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed.
e. to provide initial information about which behavior(s) should be assessed.
2. Defining the target behavior phase
3. A pre-program or baseline-assessment phase
a. applied behavior analyst or behavior therapist assesses the target behavior to (a)
determine its level prior to the introduction of the program or treatment, and (b) analyze
the individual’s current environment to identify possible controlling variables—or, less
technically—“causes” of the behavior to be changed
4. Treatment Phase
a. behavior therapist will design and apply a program to bring about the desired behavior
change
5. Follow-up Phase
a. is conducted to determine whether the improvements achieved during treatment are
maintained after the program’s termination
Indirect Assessment Procedures- assessments for which the behavior modifier or a trained observer
does not directly observe the target behavior in the situation in which the behavior occurs
Advantage: of being convenient, not requiring an inordinate amount of time, and potentially
providing information about covert behaviors
Disadvantage: providing information might not remember relevant observations accurately
or have biases that would influence them to provide inaccurate data
- Interviews With the Client and Significant Others
- Questionnaires
- Role-playing
Direct Assessment Procedures- assessments in which the behavior modifier or a trained observer
directly observes and records the target behaviors in the actual settings in which the behavior occurs
, Advantage- they are more accurate than indirect assessment procedures, which is the main
reason that applied behavior analysts prefer to use direct assessment procedures whenever possible
Disadvantage- they are time consuming, require that observers be appropriately trained, and
cannot be used to monitor covert behaviors
Experimental Assessment Procedures- are used to clearly reveal the environmental causes of
problem behavior in order to reduce or remove these causes
Characteristics of behavior for direct assessment
1. Topography- the specific movements involved in making the response
2. Frequency or rate- the number of instances of a behavior that occur in a given period of time
3. Duration- the length of time from the beginning to the end of an episode of behavior
4. Intensity magnitude, or force of a response
5. Stimulus control- the degree of correlation between the occurrence of a given event and a
response quickly following that even
6. Latency- the time between the occurrence of a particular event or cue and the start of that
behavior
7. Quality- essentially an arbitrary—and often subjective—designation of one or more of the
previously mentioned characteristics of behavior that has functional or social value
Strategies for recording behavior
Continuous or event-frequency recording is the recording of every instance of a behavior during a
designated observation period.
Interval recording registers the target behavior as either occurring or not occurring during short
intervals of equal duration—e.g., intervals of 10 seconds—during the specified observation period
such as 30 minutes
Partial-interval recording registers the target behavior a maximum of once per interval
regardless of how many times the behavior occurs during each interval and regardless of the
behavior’s duration
Whole-interval recording denotes the target behavior as occurring during an interval only if
the behavior persists throughout the entire interval
Time-sampling recording scores a behavior as occurring or not occurring during very brief
observation intervals that are separated from each other by a much longer period of time
Assessing the accuracy of observations
, First, the response definition might be vague, subjective, or incomplete, so that the observer has
problems making accurate observations. Second, the observational situation might be such that an
observer has difficulty detecting the behavior because of distractions or other obstructions to the
observing process or because the behavior is too subtle or complex to be observed accurately in that
situation. Third, the observer might be poorly trained, unmotivated, or biased. Two other possible
categories of error are poorly designed data sheets and cumbersome recording procedures.
Kazdin (2011, pp. 114–120) detailed five sources of bias and artifact that can influence an observer:
Reactivity refers to the fact that observers tend to be less accurate if they are unaware they are
being monitored.
- Observer drift is the tendency for an observer’s definition of the target behavior to gradually
shift away from the definition the observer was originally given.
- Observer expectancy refers to the tendency for the observations to inaccurately show
improvement in the target behavior as a function of the observer expecting the behavior to
improve.
- Feedback refers to the tendency of the observations to be influenced by positive or negative
feedback inadvertently provided to the observer by his or her supervisor.
- Complexity refers to the tendency for observations to be less accurate if the definition of the
target response has many parts or the observer is required to observe multiple behaviors at
the same time.
Because any one or combination of the above categories and sources of error might be present in
any behavior modification project, behavior modifiers frequently conduct interobserver agreement
or IOA estimates (also called interobserver reliability or IOR estimates).
Chapter 6 Increasing a behavior with positive
reinforcement
Positive reinforcer- anything that, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the
behavior to increase in frequency
Positive reinforcement- if someone in a given situation does something that is followed immediately
by a positive reinforcer, then that person is more likely to do the same thing the next time he or she
encounters a similar situation
Operant behaviors or operant responses- behaviors that operate on the environment to generate
consequences and are in turn influenced by those consequences
Negative reinforcement- (escape conditioning) states that the removal of aversive stimuli
immediately after the occurrence of a response will increase the likelihood of that response
Factors influencing the effectiveness of positive reinforcement
1. Selecting the behavior to be increased- being specific, you (a) help to ensure the reliability of
detecting instances of the behavior and changes in its frequency, which is the measure by which
one judges reinforcer effectiveness, and (b) increase the likelihood that the reinforcement
program will be applied consistently.
2. Choosing reinforcers
a. Classification of reinforcers
