Summary : history of international relations

History of International Relations
History of International Relations.........................................................................................1
Chapter 1 : The Founding Myth of Westphalia (1648-...).............................................. 6
1) The Significance of Westphalia................................................................................ 6
Historical Background.............................................................................................6
Significance to IR....................................................................................................6
2) Limits of Westphalia................................................................................................. 7
Limit 1 : 1648 is an arbitrary date........................................................................... 7
Limit 2 : Insisting on Westphalia is Eurocentric...................................................... 7
Limit 3 : European history cannot be reduced to events happening on the
European continent................................................................................................ 8
Reading : The Peace of Westphalia (chapter 37)...................................................8
Summary chapter 1................................................................................................ 9
Chapter 2 : The Struggle for Power in Early Modern Europe (1500-1700)................ 10
1) The Protagonists.................................................................................................... 10
Great Powers of the Time.....................................................................................10
2) The Events............................................................................................................. 11
Proxy wars and civil wars..................................................................................... 11
Wars that led to fragmentation........................................................................ 11
Wars that led to centralization and the emergence of ‘proto-nation-states’....12
Great Power wars.................................................................................................13
3) Consequences....................................................................................................... 14
Triumph of anarchy as the organizing principle of European politics............. 14
Sovereignty was (partially) consecrated as the internal organizing principle of
European States............................................................................................. 14
Summary chapter 2.............................................................................................. 15
Chapter 3 : The French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars (1789-1815).................... 16
1) The Protagonists.................................................................................................... 16
2) The Events............................................................................................................. 17
Background.......................................................................................................... 17
The Revolution..................................................................................................... 18
The war.................................................................................................................18
French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)........................................................18
Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815)........................................................................18
Significance for the genesis of the modern sovereign state................................. 20
The invention of the levée en masse.............................................................. 20
Watershed moment in military history and history of nationalism...................20
Institution of national debt markets................................................................. 21
Charles Tilly : Coercion, capital and European States......................................... 21
The system : the Continental System...................................................................22
Economic ‘self-blockade’ of the European Continent - Berlin decrees 1806..22
3) The consequences.................................................................................................23



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, The Concert of Europe......................................................................................... 23
Liberalism and Nationalism.................................................................................. 24
Summary chapter 3.............................................................................................. 24
Chapter 4 : Colonialism and Rise and Fall of the European Company-State
(1600-1858)......................................................................................................................25
Introduction.................................................................................................................25
1) The protagonists.................................................................................................... 25
English East India Company, Royal African Company and Hudson Bay
Company (1660-1752)....................................................................................25
Dutch East India and West India Companies (1621-1792).............................26
Non-European powers....................................................................................26
2) The events............................................................................................................. 28
Background : First century of Spanish and Portuguese Colonization of the
Americas...............................................................................................................28
Company-state form....................................................................................... 28
The colonization of Indonesia...............................................................................30
The colonization of India.......................................................................................31
The collapse of the Mughal Empire................................................................ 31
Atlantic Trade........................................................................................................32
1) Dutch West India Company........................................................................32
2) Royal African Company..............................................................................33
The colonization of North America....................................................................... 34
3) The consequences.................................................................................................35
A) The first international system........................................................................... 35
B) Industrial Revolution........................................................................................ 35
Summary chapter 4.............................................................................................. 36
Chapter 5 : The Long 19th Century (Part 1) : The Concert of Europe and Balance of
Power (1815-1914).......................................................................................................... 37
Introduction.................................................................................................................37
1) Protagonists........................................................................................................... 38
Britain............................................................................................................. 38
France............................................................................................................ 38
Russia.............................................................................................................38
Austria-Hungary..............................................................................................38
Prussia / Germany.......................................................................................... 39
2) The events............................................................................................................. 39
Background.......................................................................................................... 39
Concert of Europe (1)..................................................................................... 39
Socio-economic dynamics.............................................................................. 39
Revolutions of 1848..............................................................................................40
Three major groups........................................................................................ 40
The Revolutions..............................................................................................41
The ‘Eastern Question’......................................................................................... 42
A Threat to the Concert of Europe..................................................................42
The Crimean War (1853-1856).......................................................................43


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, The Unification of Germany..................................................................................43
The unification - Prussia................................................................................. 43
Germany - 1871..............................................................................................44
3) The consequences.................................................................................................45
A) The material conditions of the First Globalization............................................ 45
B) ‘New Imperialism’.............................................................................................45
Osterhammel - Bleak and fatalistic................................................................. 46
Summary chapter 5.............................................................................................. 46
Chapter 6 : The Long 19th Century (part 2) : The First Globalization (1815-1914)...47
Introduction.................................................................................................................47
1) Protagonists........................................................................................................... 49
European powers........................................................................................... 49
United States.................................................................................................. 49
Japan.............................................................................................................. 49
Qing Empire (China)....................................................................................... 49
2) The events............................................................................................................. 50
The Great Game...................................................................................................50
Halford Mackinder : Geographic Pivot of History............................................50
Unequal Treaties.................................................................................................. 50
China.............................................................................................................. 50
Scramble for Africa............................................................................................... 52
Russo-Japanese War of 1905.............................................................................. 52
Why this was globally significant.................................................................... 53
3) The consequences.................................................................................................53
A) The world was set on a trajectory of uneven development..............................53
B) Leading to ‘late developing nationalisms’ to emerge....................................... 54
Japan.............................................................................................................. 54
Summary chapter 6.............................................................................................. 54
Chapter 7 : WWI and ‘the end of Nineteenth Century Civilization’ (1914-1939)....... 55
Introduction.................................................................................................................55
1) Protagonists........................................................................................................... 55
British Empire................................................................................................. 55
France (Third Republic and Empire).............................................................. 55
Germany (Imperial, Weimar and later Nazi)................................................... 55
Russia, Soviet Union...................................................................................... 56
Japanese Empire............................................................................................56
USA................................................................................................................ 56
2) The events............................................................................................................. 56
World War 1..........................................................................................................56
Triggers of WWI..............................................................................................57
Reality of WWI................................................................................................ 57
The 1917 Russian Revolution.............................................................................. 58
February Revolution....................................................................................... 58
October Revolution......................................................................................... 58


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, Era of political radicalism................................................................................ 59
Economic order.................................................................................................... 59
Why the system no longer fit after WWI......................................................... 59
Global security order............................................................................................ 60
The League of Nations................................................................................... 60
The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)..................................................................... 60
3) Consequences....................................................................................................... 61
1) Economic ‘New Deal’....................................................................................... 61
2) Fragmentation of the world economy............................................................... 61
Summary chapter 7.............................................................................................. 61
Chapter 8 : World War II and founding of the post-1945 International Order
(1939-1945)......................................................................................................................62
Introduction.................................................................................................................62
1) The protagonists.................................................................................................... 62
Axis powers.......................................................................................................... 62
The allies.............................................................................................................. 63
2) The Events............................................................................................................. 63
The Eastern Front / Generalplan Ost................................................................... 63
The words of Hitler as evidence..................................................................... 64
How was a country like Germany convinced by this genocidal ideology?......65
Misreading by other powers........................................................................... 66
Pacific war and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.........................67
Collision with the United states.......................................................................68
Rise of American power in Asia......................................................................69
The Founding of a New International Order......................................................... 69
Spheres of influence....................................................................................... 70
Japan.............................................................................................................. 70
3) The Consequences................................................................................................ 71
A) A prelude to the Cold War................................................................................71
The Long Telegram.........................................................................................71
The Greek Civil War (1946-1949)...................................................................71
The Berlin Airlift (1948-1949)..........................................................................71
B) An ‘embedded liberal order’.............................................................................71
Summary chapter 8.............................................................................................. 72
Chapter 9 : The Cold War, Liberalism and Birth of European Communities
(1945-1985)......................................................................................................................72
Introduction.................................................................................................................72
1) The Protagonists.................................................................................................... 73
The US - Empire of Liberty................................................................................... 73
State power of the US.................................................................................... 74
The Soviet Union - Empire of Justice................................................................... 74
2) The Events............................................................................................................. 76
Cold War in the ‘Third World’................................................................................76
The Soviet approach to the Third World......................................................... 76



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, The US approach to the Third World.............................................................. 77
Failure and backlash...................................................................................... 77
Cold War in Europe.............................................................................................. 78
Key issue in Europe : Reconstruction.............................................................78
European political consensus......................................................................... 78
War in Europe.................................................................................................79
Comparison with Eastern Europe (1950s–1970s)..........................................79
The Cold War in East Asia....................................................................................80
Wars in East Asia........................................................................................... 80
Other key drivers in East Asia........................................................................ 80
3) The Consequences................................................................................................ 81
Empire of Justice decays................................................................................81
Empire of Liberty radicalizes.......................................................................... 81
Summary chapter 9.............................................................................................. 82
Chapter 10 : Post-Cold War ‘Global Liberal Moment’ (1989-2015).............................82
Introduction.................................................................................................................82
1) The protagonists.................................................................................................... 83
The US (empire of liberty).................................................................................... 83
2) The Events............................................................................................................. 83
Neoliberal Globalization........................................................................................83
Neoliberal ‘Utopia’.......................................................................................... 83
Global War on Terror............................................................................................ 85
US Response : War on Terror.........................................................................85
The Rise of China.................................................................................................86
Military spending.............................................................................................87
3) The Consequences................................................................................................ 89
Return to bipolarity............................................................................................... 89
Crisis of neoliberalism.......................................................................................... 89




5

,Chapter 1 : The Founding Myth of Westphalia (1648-...)

1) The Significance of Westphalia

Historical Background
Treaty of Westphalia = collective name for 2 peace treaties signed in 1648 (Osnabrück and
Münster)
→ Ended the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) : a conflict within the Holy Roman Empire that
involved most European powers
→ Ended the Eighty Years’ War (1568–1648) : confirming the independence of the Dutch
Republic from Spain
→ Often regarded as “Year 0” for modern international relations, as they introduced the idea
that each state is independent and other countries should not interfere in its territory or
government

Consequences :

1) Territorial changes : Alsace goes to France, Swedish gains within Germany,
independence of the Netherlands,...
→ These changes weakened the Habsburgs’ power and shifted the balance of power toward
France and Sweden

2) Change in the political structure of the Holy Roman Empire :
→ Austrian Habsburg dynasty was aiming to centralize power in the Holy Roman Empire
(HRE), but their defeat in the Thirty Years War prevented them from doing so
→ Victors ensured that the HRE remained decentralised by making changes in the political
structure
→ Transformed the Holy Roman Empire into a loose confederation rather than a unified
state



Significance to IR
→ Europe remains disunited into sovereign states ⇒ the ‘international’ is born
→ The idea of sovereignty (that each state has full authority over its own territory and
affairs) became the main rule that shaped how countries interact with each other

Hierarchy ←→ anarchy
→ Previous medieval order : numerous overlapping authorities and jurisdictions : Catholic
Church and HRE had universal pretensions to rule → sovereignty impossible under these
circumstances

Hierarchy : If the Catholic Church or the HRE can tell you what to do, you are not sovereign,
you are subordinate



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,Anarchy : Sovereignty entails that there is no authority with the monopoly on legitimate
violence, ultimate political power is distributed into territorial units and divided (international
as opposed to domestic)

⇒ The Treaty of Westphalia is considered to have instated1 sovereignty and anarchy among
European states, and laid the foundations of the international system that would spread to
the entire world



2) Limits of Westphalia

Limit 1 : 1648 is an arbitrary date
→ Difficult to designate a ‘year 0’ as change tends to be gradual

→ Many of the principles, such as diplomacy, balance of power, and political autonomy, had
already appeared in earlier contexts, for example in the city-states of Renaissance Italy
→ Moreover, several pre-modern features of European politics, particularly the importance of
dynastic rights, continued to play a major role after 1648

→ At the time, European states were still far from being modern nation-states, and the
participants at Westphalia did not see themselves as creating a new system of “sovereign”
states → In fact, the word “sovereignty” does not even appear in the treaties themselves
→ It was only centuries later that historians and political theorists began to portray
Westphalia as a decisive turning point



Limit 2 : Insisting on Westphalia is Eurocentric
Core assumption of Westphalia : current international system was invented in Europe and
spread outwards
→ True to some extent : contemporary legal norms such as sovereignty, bordering
practices,... have been first practiced in Europe → That reading is teleological ⇒ implies
that European history had always been the most important

Reality : Europe was only a relatively brief period the most important region
→ 1648 : European states were (based on GPD) completely overshadowed by polities such
as the Qing Empire (China) and Mughal Empire (India) ⇒ Yet, they are not included in world
politics

Why should a series of events taking place on the periphery of world politics—the
Westphalian treaties—be treated as the foundation of the modern international system?
→ In East Asia, for example, 1648 did not mark any shift toward sovereign equality
→ The China-centered tribute system, a hierarchical model of international order, persisted
for several more centuries



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Instated : established, installed


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, One possible response to this critique is that, in 2025, we inhabit a world where the
European or Western practices of international order-making have become globally
dominant→ Alternative systems, such as the East Asian tribute system, have disappeared



Limit 3 : European history cannot be reduced to events happening on the
European continent
Many of the most important practices or concepts that are considered to be European have
been invented by Europeans outside of Europe (colonies)

Example : modern territoriality = practice of considering that 2 territorial units are placed in a
state of absolute separation through an abstract geometric principle (a border)
→ before this : authority was considered to be diffusing outwards from a centre in a gradual
manner, an incremental shift
⇒ This way of drawing borders was NOT born in Westphalia, but in Tordessillas (1494)
→ Applied NOT to Europe, but to the extra-European possessions of Spain and Portugal



Reading : The Peace of Westphalia (chapter 37)
Treaty of Westphalia is often seen as one of the most important turning points in European
history→ However, historians today debate how “revolutionary” it really was

Thirty Years’ War : began as a religious and political struggle within the Holy Roman
Empire between Catholic and Protestant rulers, but soon became a wider European war
→ The war was not only about religion, it was also about dynastic rivalries and the balance
of power

Causes :
-​ Religious divisions (Catholic vs. Protestant)
-​ Political struggle between the Emperor (the Habsburgs) and local rulers (princes)
-​ Rivalries among European powers

Peace of Westphalia
Westphalia became famous as the moment that ended the medieval order and began the
modern world
It symbolized:
-​ The end of the rule of Church and Empire
-​ The rise of sovereign states
-​ The start of an international system based on anarchy (no single ruler)​

Treaty of Westphalia : beginning of the modern state system
→ Many modern historians and political theorists have challenged this idea
They argue that:
-​ The sovereign state system did not suddenly appear in 1648, it developed gradually
over the following centuries
-​ Empires, city-states, and dynastic unions continued to exist long after Westphalia



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