Multicultural Psychology Final Exam Complete Solutions 100% Verified Answers Graded A+.

individualism/collectivism - correct answers-Individualistic cultures tend to emphasize independent aspects of the self • Values distinctiveness and self-reliance -Collectivistic cultures tend to emphasize interdependent aspects of the self (e.g., close relationships, group memberships) What areas have higher levels of individualism and collectivism? - correct answers-Individualism highest in U.S., followed by other English- speaking countries and Western European nations -Collectivism esp. prevalent in Asia and Latin America; also in Africa, Eastern and S. Europe, and South Pacific - >80% of world most likely collectivistic cultures where interdependent selves more common • But psych research = individualistic is it thinking of how people conceptualize self, is it more problematic? -self-concept is a lot different across cultures which makes it problematic -difference in consistency in how people describe selves Regional differences for individualism/collectivism - correct answers-Within the United States, Hawaii and the states of the Confederate South score the highest in collectivism -On the other hand, the Mountain West and Great Plains states, the Northeast, and the Midwest are the least collectivistic -In Canada: comparison to ON, BC, NS, & QC QC: the one that was significantly more collectivistic -indigenous peoples and religious communities had more collectivism Socioeconomic status differences within same country for individualism/collectivism - correct answersIndividualism varies as a function of SES » Within same country: • Higher SES backgrounds = more independent selves vs. lower SES backgrounds • EX 1: Icelandic children: wealthier children describe selves more in terms of inner traits vs. poorer children • EX 2: U.S.: people in the middle class tend to act in ways that are more individualistic than people in the working class (who act in ways that are more collectivistic) example of Read welcome letter from their university for individualism/collectivism - correct answers-Condition 1: independent message (university would allow to create their own intellectual journey) -Condition 2: interdependent message (they would get to work together and learn from others) First generation students were more motivated on an anagram-solving task if it followed an interdependent welcome message from their university than they were on an independent message. Continuing-generation students were more motivated by an independent message. Food for thought - correct answers-We see variation within countries on collectivism, interdependence: regions and SES • Most research conducted on university students » University students tend to have higher SES » Universities within U.S. are concentrated a lot in Northeast and Midwest » This means that psych research in U.S largely conducted with ps. who are even more individualistic than the most individualistic place on Earth » In addition, research on collectivistic cultures conducted on East Asian cultures (Japan, China, Korea) Caution with Individualism/Collectivism - correct answers-Individualism/collectivism is not meant to be a dichotomy -Experience of self is on continuum: have both interdependent and independent aspects of self » People vary in degree with they are closer to the independent or interdependent exemplars » The same dynamic applies to a given culture as well (e.g. while Americans are generally individualistic, some are collectivistic, and some are more/less individualistic than others) • Research talked about are general patterns of differences (not all-or-none statements) Culture and Gender - correct answers-Research has shown that independence, as measured by assertiveness and agency, and interdependence, as measured by collectivism and relatedness, have cultural differences -In terms of gender, however, few differences emerge - in fact, the only reliable difference is in terms of relatedness Cultures around the world have widely different views on whether roles, obligations, and rights of men and women should be different - correct answers-14 countries using Sex Role Ideology scale -Highest: Netherlands, Finland, Germany -Lowest: Nigeria, Pakistan, India -Males and females in a given culture share similar gender attitudes correlations of gender egalitarianism - correct answers-Males generally have more traditional gender views than females -Some predictors of higher gender egalitarianism include: • Religion • Greater individualism • Urbanization explanations of differences in gender equality - correct answers-religion -history behind it (women) -genetics (men with more muscle mass, take on more dangerous roles) Origins of Gender (In)equality - correct answers-Bosterup (1970) argued that culture differences in gender norms may result from type of agricultural method • In particular, cultures that rely primarily on ploughs are expected to be associated with more gender inequality » Children often stay with women due to dangers of being around ploughs (and large animals that pull ploughs) » Strong division of labor is thus established » These divisions persist even today Gender and Essentialism - culture influencing gender - correct answersessentialized: reflecting some underlying, unchangeable essence which gender is more essentialized than the other, or are they both essentialized? -male gender more essentialized because girls okay to be tom boy and boys its weird to wear girl clothes Other Ways Cultures Differ in Self-Concept: - correct answersSelf-Consistency & Self Awareness Self-Consistency - correct answers-Researchers have noted cultural differences in the level of self-consistency shown by participants -In one study, participants were asked to sit in different contexts (e.g., professor's office, with another student) and describe themselves • Japanese participants varied in their self-descriptors depending on the context • American participants responded similarly across contexts -check slide table 6.2 Results challenge assumption of personality research • That people are stable across situations • BUT, response may depend on context • Which response set is the TRUE response set? implications of self-(in)consistency - Cognitive dissonance - correct answersWe have strong motivations to be consistent, therefore: -Seeing own inconsistency -> Feeling distress -Feeling distress -> Compelled to resolve dissonance -Compulsion -> Change attitudes or change behaviours People will go to great lengths to convince self (change attitude) that their actions are consistent! -or to resolve two consisting views Dissonance is especially important after making a choice between equally desirable options - correct answersAfter choosing between two equally desirable alternatives, we tend to rationalize why we made our choice: » We often emphasize what made the chosen option desirable; downplay that which made it undesirable » We do the opposite for the option not chosen CD Study - correct answers-Heine and colleagues (1997) -Asked Canadian and Japanese students to rate 10 CDs in desirability -Then offered participants a choice between 5th and 6th rated (the choice) -Then asked participants to reevaluate the CDs -Canadian students now ranked their selected CD higher than before -Japanese showed no desire to inflate rating of selected CD Some research suggests, however, that East Asian individuals are also motivated to be consistent, but in different ways - correct answersAccordingly, individuals from East Asia don't rationalize after making a choice...for themselves • When making a choice for someone else, they do rationalize their choice implications for needs of inconsistency - correct answersAdvertisers and fundraisers frequently exploit our need for consistency • Exploit our desire for consistency - if attitudes haven't changed since donation, you should give again • Are different cultures affected differentially by these techniques? why be consistent? - correct answerscultures differ in the benefits derived from self-consistency -describe traits (self-descriptions) us -> friendly, optimistic, responsible, trust-worthy korea -> same as us but then hasty, two-faced, passive self-awareness - correct answers• Subjective self-awareness = taking on perspective of a subject - an "I" perspective » Attention focused on outside world, not with the self • Objective self-awareness = people experience themselves as an object - a "me" perspective » Attention directed inward, as though an audience were evaluating subject » Are there cultural differences in self-awareness?? Independent view of the self - correct answers-Less concerned with others' assessments of them -Often have subjective self- awareness Interdependent view of the self - correct answers-More concerned with others' assessments of them -Often have objective self- awareness Do cultures vary in their self-view accuracy? - correct answers-Children from collectivistic countries more accurately predicted their own future behaviour » Children from individualistic countries gave significantly fewer candies than they predicted -When Westerners are placed in front of mirror, more likely to switch to objective self-awareness » Interdependent selves typically operate in a state of objective self-awareness -What would happen if we placed both groups in a state of objective awareness by seeing themselves in a mirror? -Americans are more self-critical when they are in front of a mirror than when they are not, Japanese self-evaluations are unaffected by the presence of a mirror Two implicit theories of the self - correct answers• Incremental theories = belief that abilities and traits are malleable and are capable of being changed, with efforts • Entity theories = belief that abilities and traits are largely fixed, reflecting innate features of the self • Which of these 2 implicit theories of the self best captures your own views? -mix of both because it is genetics but depends if you use it (michael phelps) Implicit Theories of the Self - correct answers-When encountering failure: • Those with incremental theories of self respond by redoubling efforts • Those with entity theories of self likely respond by blaming their own innate lack of ability -In general, incremental theories of the self are characteristic of people with an interdependent view of the self (seen more in some Asian cultures) -Entity theories of the self are characteristic of people with an independent view of the self (North American) Personality - correct answerswhat is personality? -depends on socialization, culture, different languages can different cultures have unique personalities? Factor analysis: five underlying personality factors as measured by NEO-PI-R - correct answers-English has about 18,000 personality trait words -Factor analysis: five underlying personality factors as measured by NEO-PI-R: • O penness to experience (intelligence and curiosity about world) • C onscientiousness (how responsible and dependable someone is) • E xtraversion (active or dominant) • A greeableness (warm and pleasant) • N euroticism (unstable or unpredictable) short answer option know adjectives that go with 5 factors NEO-PI-R in different 50 cultures - correct answers-Use of NEO-PI-R in different 50 cultures reveals universality in the structure of five factors -However, the NEO-PI-R was created using English terms • Thus, it may not capture culture-specific personality traits -Indeed, investigations in a number of cultures including Spain, Greece, the Philippines, and China have yielded additional factors Researched Chinese novels, proverbs, personality descriptions and psychology research - correct answers-Found 26 personality constructs and 12 clinical constructs -Created personality questionnaire and factor analyzed data, 4 factors appeared: • Dependability, interpersonal relatedness, social potency, and individualism how do these 4 factors relate to the 5 factor model? - correct answers-Dependability -Interpersonal relatedness -Social potency -Individualism Dependability ≈ Neuroticism Social potency ≈ Extraversion Individualism ≈ Agreeableness