Lecture 1 Power of the media: watchdogs or lapdogs?
Political communication
Communication creates what people understand to be political.
It includes spoken words, written texts, visual symbols, digital videos, or combinations of
these forms.
Some types of communication have long traditions of being political (such as speeches or
newspapers), while newer ones like social media or online videos are central to how we talk
about politics today.
Harold D. Lasswell defined communication as:
“Who says what, to whom, in what channel, with what effect?”
This model highlights the key components of communication: the sender, message,
audience, medium, and effect. It reminds us that communication always involves
intentionality and influence.
Definition by Doris A. Graber:
“Political communication is the study of the production, dissemination, processing, and
effects of information, both through communication channels that are directly political and
through communication channels that are not directly political.”
Graber emphasizes that not only explicitly political content (like campaign speeches) but
also entertainment and culture can communicate political ideas.
Definition by Brian McNair:
“The communication processes, strategies, techniques, and media through which individuals
and groups take part in the formation, implementation, and contestation of public policy.”
McNair’s view focuses on how communication enables participation in and resistance to
policymaking.
A model of Political Communication in the Digital Age
This model illustrates how political communication operates within a broader power
structure that connects media, technology, and society. It shows how communication about
politics is shaped not only by messages (content) but also by the technological platforms,
economic and cultural environments, and governance systems that surround them.
1. Inner layer: Platforms + Media
At the center are media and digital platforms (TV, newspapers, social media, YouTube,
TikTok) — the main channels of political communication.
,They function through three connected dimensions:
● Content: Political messages such as news, speeches, memes, and campaigns that
reflect conflict and debate.
● Technology: The digital infrastructure (algorithms, feeds, platform design) that
shapes who sees what and determines visibility.
● Governance: The rules and regulations (moderation, ownership, laws) that control
how information circulates and who holds power.
Together, these elements form the core mechanisms of political communication in the
digital age.
2. Middle layer: Communication and Politics
This layer shows the
interaction between communication and the political system.
Political actors (governments, parties, movements) rely on media and platforms to
shape opinion, gain support, and manage crises.
At the same time, citizens and journalists can challenge or counter those in power through
digital media. Thus, politics and communication are mutually dependent and constantly
influencing each other.
3. Outer layers: Power embedded in society
The broader environment —
economy, culture, history, and society
— shapes how political communication functions.
Each of these areas contains
power relations
that affect media systems:
economic power influences ownership, cultural norms guide interpretation, history shapes
communication traditions, and social structures define participation.
These layers remind us that
all political communication operates within wider systems of power.
Competition among political actors over all forms of media (Wolfsfeld, 2022)
● Most political contests are unequal, involving both powerful actors (governments,
elites) and challengers (opposition, activists).
, ● The political environment strongly affects competition over the media. Factors such
as the type of government, level of democracy, and degree of media freedom
shape how communication occurs.
● Political actors try to use different forms of media to influence others, often
strategically controlling narratives and framing events.
● Audiences are not passive recipients of messages; they interpret, share, and
sometimes reshape political communication, especially through digital media.
Five Principles Concerning Politics and the Media
1. Political power can usually be translated into power over all forms of media.
2. When the powerful lose control over the political environment, they also lose control
over all forms of media.
3. Every political story that appears in every form of media is biased.
4. All forms of media are primarily dedicated to telling good stories, which can often
have a major impact on political processes.
5. The media can get you when you are not paying attention.
Each principle shows how the relationship between politics and media is both unequal and
dynamic. Powerholders may dominate coverage, but under certain conditions, their control
weakens.
Political Power and Power over the Media
The media are often biased in favour of the powerful, since elites have easier access,
credibility, and resources to manage their image.
There is constant competition between governments and their opponents to be heard.
For a democracy to function healthily, weaker voices must still be able to reach the public.
However, the media’s “obsession” with elites limits the diversity of political discourse.
Elites not only receive more coverage but often more positive coverage as well.
Because of this, those without political power find it much harder to attract traditional news
attention.
Key question: In the digital age, has political power become less important in determining
influence over the media? Has technology reduced the gap between the powerful and the
weak?
While digital media provide new opportunities for challengers, traditional power structures
still matter. Online visibility does not automatically equal real influence.
Economic Influences
There are three main “doors” into the news system:
, ● The front door is for those with political power. They gain easy access and usually
receive more favorable coverage.
● The back door is used by weaker political actors who must find alternative or
creative ways to attract attention and become newsworthy.
● The side door involves civil disobedience, protests, or dramatic actions that draw
media coverage without losing legitimacy.
This reflects the principle of cumulative inequality: “The rich get richer, and the poor
remain poor.”
Media systems tend to maintain or even increase existing power imbalances in society and
the world.
“When the powerful lose control over the political environment, they also lose control over all
forms of media.” (Wolfsfeld, 2022, Chapter 2)
When can the powerful become weaker?
The powerful lose influence when they lose control over the political environment. This can
happen when:
● They lose control over events (e.g., COVID-19 pandemic, terrorist attacks, collapsing
coalition governments).
● They lose control over the flow of information (e.g., leaks, whistleblowing,
investigative journalism).
● They fail to maintain elite and public consensus on their policies.
In the digital age, controlling the political environment is more difficult because of the speed
and openness of information flows.
Still, political leaders and institutions use strategic communication, spin, and agenda-setting
to influence how stories are told.
Examples:
● The Panama Papers exposed secret offshore financial activities of elites.
● WikiLeaks published classified information, challenging state control over
information.
“Every political story that appears in every form of media is biased” (Wolfsfeld, 2022,
Chapter 3)
Media biases
Because of partisan, cultural, commercial, and other biases, true objectivity is
unattainable.
While discussions often focus on partisan bias (favoring one ideology or party), there are
many other forms that shape news coverage.
Political communication
Communication creates what people understand to be political.
It includes spoken words, written texts, visual symbols, digital videos, or combinations of
these forms.
Some types of communication have long traditions of being political (such as speeches or
newspapers), while newer ones like social media or online videos are central to how we talk
about politics today.
Harold D. Lasswell defined communication as:
“Who says what, to whom, in what channel, with what effect?”
This model highlights the key components of communication: the sender, message,
audience, medium, and effect. It reminds us that communication always involves
intentionality and influence.
Definition by Doris A. Graber:
“Political communication is the study of the production, dissemination, processing, and
effects of information, both through communication channels that are directly political and
through communication channels that are not directly political.”
Graber emphasizes that not only explicitly political content (like campaign speeches) but
also entertainment and culture can communicate political ideas.
Definition by Brian McNair:
“The communication processes, strategies, techniques, and media through which individuals
and groups take part in the formation, implementation, and contestation of public policy.”
McNair’s view focuses on how communication enables participation in and resistance to
policymaking.
A model of Political Communication in the Digital Age
This model illustrates how political communication operates within a broader power
structure that connects media, technology, and society. It shows how communication about
politics is shaped not only by messages (content) but also by the technological platforms,
economic and cultural environments, and governance systems that surround them.
1. Inner layer: Platforms + Media
At the center are media and digital platforms (TV, newspapers, social media, YouTube,
TikTok) — the main channels of political communication.
,They function through three connected dimensions:
● Content: Political messages such as news, speeches, memes, and campaigns that
reflect conflict and debate.
● Technology: The digital infrastructure (algorithms, feeds, platform design) that
shapes who sees what and determines visibility.
● Governance: The rules and regulations (moderation, ownership, laws) that control
how information circulates and who holds power.
Together, these elements form the core mechanisms of political communication in the
digital age.
2. Middle layer: Communication and Politics
This layer shows the
interaction between communication and the political system.
Political actors (governments, parties, movements) rely on media and platforms to
shape opinion, gain support, and manage crises.
At the same time, citizens and journalists can challenge or counter those in power through
digital media. Thus, politics and communication are mutually dependent and constantly
influencing each other.
3. Outer layers: Power embedded in society
The broader environment —
economy, culture, history, and society
— shapes how political communication functions.
Each of these areas contains
power relations
that affect media systems:
economic power influences ownership, cultural norms guide interpretation, history shapes
communication traditions, and social structures define participation.
These layers remind us that
all political communication operates within wider systems of power.
Competition among political actors over all forms of media (Wolfsfeld, 2022)
● Most political contests are unequal, involving both powerful actors (governments,
elites) and challengers (opposition, activists).
, ● The political environment strongly affects competition over the media. Factors such
as the type of government, level of democracy, and degree of media freedom
shape how communication occurs.
● Political actors try to use different forms of media to influence others, often
strategically controlling narratives and framing events.
● Audiences are not passive recipients of messages; they interpret, share, and
sometimes reshape political communication, especially through digital media.
Five Principles Concerning Politics and the Media
1. Political power can usually be translated into power over all forms of media.
2. When the powerful lose control over the political environment, they also lose control
over all forms of media.
3. Every political story that appears in every form of media is biased.
4. All forms of media are primarily dedicated to telling good stories, which can often
have a major impact on political processes.
5. The media can get you when you are not paying attention.
Each principle shows how the relationship between politics and media is both unequal and
dynamic. Powerholders may dominate coverage, but under certain conditions, their control
weakens.
Political Power and Power over the Media
The media are often biased in favour of the powerful, since elites have easier access,
credibility, and resources to manage their image.
There is constant competition between governments and their opponents to be heard.
For a democracy to function healthily, weaker voices must still be able to reach the public.
However, the media’s “obsession” with elites limits the diversity of political discourse.
Elites not only receive more coverage but often more positive coverage as well.
Because of this, those without political power find it much harder to attract traditional news
attention.
Key question: In the digital age, has political power become less important in determining
influence over the media? Has technology reduced the gap between the powerful and the
weak?
While digital media provide new opportunities for challengers, traditional power structures
still matter. Online visibility does not automatically equal real influence.
Economic Influences
There are three main “doors” into the news system:
, ● The front door is for those with political power. They gain easy access and usually
receive more favorable coverage.
● The back door is used by weaker political actors who must find alternative or
creative ways to attract attention and become newsworthy.
● The side door involves civil disobedience, protests, or dramatic actions that draw
media coverage without losing legitimacy.
This reflects the principle of cumulative inequality: “The rich get richer, and the poor
remain poor.”
Media systems tend to maintain or even increase existing power imbalances in society and
the world.
“When the powerful lose control over the political environment, they also lose control over all
forms of media.” (Wolfsfeld, 2022, Chapter 2)
When can the powerful become weaker?
The powerful lose influence when they lose control over the political environment. This can
happen when:
● They lose control over events (e.g., COVID-19 pandemic, terrorist attacks, collapsing
coalition governments).
● They lose control over the flow of information (e.g., leaks, whistleblowing,
investigative journalism).
● They fail to maintain elite and public consensus on their policies.
In the digital age, controlling the political environment is more difficult because of the speed
and openness of information flows.
Still, political leaders and institutions use strategic communication, spin, and agenda-setting
to influence how stories are told.
Examples:
● The Panama Papers exposed secret offshore financial activities of elites.
● WikiLeaks published classified information, challenging state control over
information.
“Every political story that appears in every form of media is biased” (Wolfsfeld, 2022,
Chapter 3)
Media biases
Because of partisan, cultural, commercial, and other biases, true objectivity is
unattainable.
While discussions often focus on partisan bias (favoring one ideology or party), there are
many other forms that shape news coverage.
