MARKETINGBELEID: THEORIE EN CASES
CONTENTS
chapter 1: marketing and the organisation .............................................................................................6
what is marketing .............................................................................................................................6
marketing as a strategic approach .....................................................................................................6
adopting a market orientation in a changing world ..............................................................................7
marktoriëntatie ................................................................................................................................7
product orientation...........................................................................................................................7
understanding market-driven businesses ..........................................................................................8
samenvatting marktoriëntatie ...........................................................................................................8
efficiency vs effectiveness ................................................................................................................8
five core customer and marketplace concepts ...................................................................................8
needs, wants and demands ..............................................................................................................9
marketing offering: products, services and experiences ......................................................................9
customer value ................................................................................................................................9
customer satisfaction (examen) ...................................................................................................... 10
kano model (examen!!) ................................................................................................................ 10
concepten ..................................................................................................................................... 11
customer loyalty ......................................................................................................................... 11
brand love (=merktliefde) ............................................................................................................ 11
long-term customer relationships ................................................................................................ 11
co-creation ................................................................................................................................. 11
chapther 2: the marketing environment ............................................................................................... 11
Portfolio analyse: Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix ................................................................. 12
marketing performance metrics ...................................................................................................... 13
customer advocacy: net promotor score ......................................................................................... 13
microenvironment .......................................................................................................................... 14
macroenvironment ......................................................................................................................... 14
pestle ............................................................................................................................................ 15
Politiek-legale factoren: .............................................................................................................. 15
Economische factoren ................................................................................................................ 15
Technologische factoren ............................................................................................................. 16
Ecologische factoren .................................................................................................................. 16
demografische factoren .............................................................................................................. 16
culturele krachten....................................................................................................................... 17
, voorbeelden pestle: ready to eat meals ........................................................................................ 17
monitoring the marketing environment ............................................................................................ 17
chapter 3: sustainable marketing and societe ...................................................................................... 18
the environment, society and the changing marketing landscape ...................................................... 18
sustainable marketing .................................................................................................................... 18
maatschappelijk verantwoord ondernemen ..................................................................................... 18
ecologiscal .................................................................................................................................... 18
equitable ....................................................................................................................................... 19
Chapter 4: consumer behaviour.......................................................................................................... 19
why study consumer behaviour? ..................................................................................................... 20
the changing context of consumer behaviour ................................................................................... 21
global consumer culture ................................................................................................................. 21
influences on consumer behaviour .................................................................................................. 22
the dimensions of consumer behaviour ........................................................................................... 24
Wie koopt er: consumer’s buying roles ......................................................................................... 24
hoe kopen ze: the consumer decision-making process ................................................................. 24
waar en wanneer ze kopen .......................................................................................................... 32
chapter 7: market segmentation and positioning ................................................................................. 40
stp: a process with four steps .......................................................................................................... 40
segmentation ................................................................................................................................. 40
segmenting consumer markets ....................................................................................................... 41
target marketing: definition ............................................................................................................. 45
target marketing strategies ............................................................................................................. 48
undifferentiated marketing (examen!!) ......................................................................................... 48
differentiated marketing (examen!!) ............................................................................................. 49
focused marketing (examen!!) ..................................................................................................... 49
customized marketing (examen!!) ................................................................................................ 50
positioning ..................................................................................................................................... 52
key tasks in positioning ............................................................................................................... 52
Keys to successful positioning ..................................................................................................... 52
betekenisvolle differentiatie ............................................................................................................ 55
repositioning strategies .................................................................................................................. 55
building an effective marketing mix .................................................................................................. 56
chapter 8: value through brands ......................................................................................................... 57
products and brands ...................................................................................................................... 57
product line and product mix .......................................................................................................... 57
branding ........................................................................................................................................ 58
, brand equity ................................................................................................................................... 59
brand building ................................................................................................................................ 61
brand name strategies and choices ............................................................................................. 63
rebranding .................................................................................................................................. 64
brand and line extension ............................................................................................................. 66
co-branding ................................................................................................................................ 67
global branding .............................................................................................................................. 68
Chapter 9: value through pricing ......................................................................................................... 70
economist approach to pricing ........................................................................................................ 70
pricing methods ............................................................................................................................. 71
Gastcollege: coca-cola ...................................................................................................................... 85
introductie ..................................................................................................................................... 85
Consumer tribes: the new vision of social groupings and how we implement it in Coca-Cola .............. 86
Why did tribes emerge: ................................................................................................................ 86
Classical segmentation based on socio-demographic criteria have lost their relevance .................. 86
what is a tribe ............................................................................................................................. 87
brand message in tribe ................................................................................................................ 88
Definitions of tribes and their benefits .......................................................................................... 88
Definitions of personas ............................................................................................................... 89
tribe application ............................................................................................................................. 89
chapter 11: value through service ....................................................................................................... 90
what is a service? ........................................................................................................................... 90
categories of services ..................................................................................................................... 90
the nature of services ..................................................................................................................... 91
evaluating services ......................................................................................................................... 91
service characteristics.................................................................................................................... 92
evidence management ................................................................................................................... 92
perishability: differential pricing ...................................................................................................... 93
managing services .......................................................................................................................... 93
managing customer relationships ................................................................................................ 94
managing service quality ............................................................................................................. 94
managing service productivity ..................................................................................................... 94
managing service staff .................................................................................................................... 95
service positioning ......................................................................................................................... 95
service marketing mix ..................................................................................................................... 95
chapter 12: introduction to marketing communication ......................................................................... 97
integrated marketing communications ............................................................................................ 97
, drivers of integrated marketing communications .......................................................................... 97
pros and risks of integrated marketing communications................................................................ 98
the scope of marketing communications ......................................................................................... 98
framework for implementing integrated marketing communications ................................................. 99
marketing strategy & objectives ................................................................................................... 99
setting communication objectives ............................................................................................. 100
selection of creative agency ...................................................................................................... 102
promotional mix selection ......................................................................................................... 102
campaign development and implementation .............................................................................. 103
evaluation before, during and after the campaign ....................................................................... 112
chapter 14: digital marketing and media ............................................................................................ 160
what are digital marketing and digital media................................................................................... 160
viral marketing: example ........................................................................................................... 160
buzz marketing: example ........................................................................................................... 160
viral vs buzz marketing .............................................................................................................. 161
Search engine advertising (SEA) en search engine optimization (SEO) .......................................... 161
Digital display advertising en betaalde media ............................................................................. 162
digital communication environment ........................................................................................... 163
digital marketing and digital media campaign planning ............................................................... 163
creative implementation ........................................................................................................... 164
the dark side of digital marketing ............................................................................................... 165
chapter 16: place: distribution, channel management and retailing .................................................... 166
supply chain ................................................................................................................................ 166
Channel intermediaries ................................................................................................................ 167
functions of channel intermediaries ........................................................................................... 167
types of distribution channels ....................................................................................................... 168
consumer channels .................................................................................................................. 168
B2B channels ........................................................................................................................... 169
services channels ..................................................................................................................... 169
channel strategy ........................................................................................................................... 170
Channel selection ..................................................................................................................... 170
distribution intensity ................................................................................................................. 172
channel integration ................................................................................................................... 173
channel management ................................................................................................................... 174
retailing ....................................................................................................................................... 175
physical retailing ....................................................................................................................... 175
online retailing .......................................................................................................................... 175
,Chapter 17: marketing planning ........................................................................................................ 176
marketing planning context ........................................................................................................... 176
The functions of marketing planning .............................................................................................. 176
Business mission ......................................................................................................................... 177
Business vision ............................................................................................................................ 178
Marketing audit ............................................................................................................................ 178
marketing performance & marketing control system ....................................................................... 179
External analysis: macro environment – micro environment ............................................................ 180
SWOT .......................................................................................................................................... 181
SWOT analysis and strategy development .................................................................................. 181
Critical success factors (csf) / key success factors (ksf) ................................................................. 182
STrategic decision-making ............................................................................................................ 182
strategic objectives ...................................................................................................................... 184
core marketing strategy ................................................................................................................ 184
setting goals................................................................................................................................. 185
tactical ........................................................................................................................................ 186
Chapter 18: analyzing competitors and creating a competitive advantage ........................................... 188
analysing competitive industry structure ....................................................................................... 188
Threat of new entrants: ................................................................................................................. 189
bargaining power of suppliers and buyers ...................................................................................... 190
threat of substitutes ..................................................................................................................... 191
industry competitors .................................................................................................................... 191
competitor analysis ...................................................................................................................... 192
market conditions and implementation actions ............................................................................. 193
competitive strategies .................................................................................................................. 194
creating differential advantage using the marketing mix .................................................................. 195
Alternative modes of competitive behavior .................................................................................... 196
chapter 4: consumer behaviour ........................................................................................................ 197
why study consumer behaviour? ................................................................................................... 197
global consumer culture ............................................................................................................... 198
chapter 19: product strategy: lifecycle, portfolio and growth .............................................................. 199
managing product lines and brand over time: the product lifecycle ................................................. 199
uses of product lifecycle ........................................................................................................... 201
managing brand and product line portfolios ................................................................................... 202
boston consulting group growth-share matrix ............................................................................. 202
managing a balanced product portfolio ...................................................................................... 203
,CHAPTER 1: MARKETING AND THE ORGANISATION
WHAT IS MARKETING
Primaire doel van marketing: Klantenbehoeften begrijpen en vervullen om waarde te creëren.
Definities:
• “Marketing is het proces waarbij bedrijven waarde creëren voor klanten en sterke klantrelaties
opbouwen om in ruil daarvoor waarde van klanten te verkrijgen”
• “The basic function of marketing is to attract and retain customers at a profit”
• “Marketing is de activiteit, het geheel van instellingen en processen voor het creëren,
communiceren, leveren en uitwisselen van aanbiedingen die waarde hebben voor klanten,
cliënten, partners en de samenleving in het algemeen”
Strategisch proces → meer dan verkopen
• Doelgroep begrijpen
• Waarde van aanbiedingen communiceren
• Klantrelaties opbouwen
Waarde:
• Klanten: Noden en wensen tegemoet komen
→ staan centraal (customer centricity)
• Organisatie: Winst
o Financieel
o Maatschappelijk
o Ecologisch
Relatie:
• Lange- vs. Kortetermijndoelstellingen
• Klantenbehoud vs. klantenwerving
Process:
• Stroom van uitwisselingen
• Informatie over consumenten
Marketing is centraal voor business success.
MARKETING AS A STRATEGIC APPROACH
The marketing concept:
Weinig zin om op een goede manier klantenwaarde te
creëren als de concurrentie dit beter doet.
Klantgerichtheid: klant staat in het centrum, je past
alles aan hun noden en behoeften → tevreden maken
en behouden
, Geïntegreerde inspanning: niet elk bedrijf heeft een marketing afdeling. Zelfs als dit wel zo is, moet elke
afdeling mee werken aan de strategie:
• R&D moet rekening houden met noden
• Marketingafdeling kan niet helemaal de prijs bepalen
→ Niet enkel de marketing moet meewerken aan de marketing → gezamenlijke aanpak
Doelrealisatie: iedereen moet geloven in het idee dat de consument centraal staat.
ADOPTING A MARKET ORIENTATION IN A CHANGING WORLD
Behoeften klant: je houdt in de gaten
hoe deze wijzigen, wat hebben de
klanten nodig
Hieruit ga je bepaalde opportuniteiten
herkennen (vb. een nieuwe markt, een
behoefte waar nog geen ander bedrijf
de behoeften van de klant vervult =
latente markt)
Touchpoints: momenten waar als bedrijf (wie dan ook, of wat dan ook) in contact komt met de klant dit
moet 1 centrale boodschap geven, moet geïntegreerd zijn etc.
MARKTORIËNTATIE
Definitie: “Het organisatiebreed genereren van marktinzicht met betrekking tot de huidige en toekomstige
klantbehoeften, het verspreiden van dit inzicht over de verschillende afdelingen en de organisatiebrede
respons daarop”
• Behoeften van consumenten beter begrijpen dan de consumenten zelf
• Het doel is niet langer verkoop, maar klanttevredenheid
Waarom belangrijk? Omdat we starten van klantenbehoeften
• Als consument weten we niet altijd exact wat we willen
• Marktinzicht: het trekken van de behoeften en hoe deze veranderen → daar een lijn in trekken en
dit volgen als bedrijf (het hele bedrijf, niet enkel de marketingafdeling)
• Klantentevredenheid → leid tot trouwe klanten
PRODUCT ORIENTATION
Staat tegenover marktoriëntatie
Klanten komen pas later in het proces aanbod →
interne focus: we statten meer van wat het bedrijf
kan doen, en minder van wat de klant nodig heeft
CONTENTS
chapter 1: marketing and the organisation .............................................................................................6
what is marketing .............................................................................................................................6
marketing as a strategic approach .....................................................................................................6
adopting a market orientation in a changing world ..............................................................................7
marktoriëntatie ................................................................................................................................7
product orientation...........................................................................................................................7
understanding market-driven businesses ..........................................................................................8
samenvatting marktoriëntatie ...........................................................................................................8
efficiency vs effectiveness ................................................................................................................8
five core customer and marketplace concepts ...................................................................................8
needs, wants and demands ..............................................................................................................9
marketing offering: products, services and experiences ......................................................................9
customer value ................................................................................................................................9
customer satisfaction (examen) ...................................................................................................... 10
kano model (examen!!) ................................................................................................................ 10
concepten ..................................................................................................................................... 11
customer loyalty ......................................................................................................................... 11
brand love (=merktliefde) ............................................................................................................ 11
long-term customer relationships ................................................................................................ 11
co-creation ................................................................................................................................. 11
chapther 2: the marketing environment ............................................................................................... 11
Portfolio analyse: Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix ................................................................. 12
marketing performance metrics ...................................................................................................... 13
customer advocacy: net promotor score ......................................................................................... 13
microenvironment .......................................................................................................................... 14
macroenvironment ......................................................................................................................... 14
pestle ............................................................................................................................................ 15
Politiek-legale factoren: .............................................................................................................. 15
Economische factoren ................................................................................................................ 15
Technologische factoren ............................................................................................................. 16
Ecologische factoren .................................................................................................................. 16
demografische factoren .............................................................................................................. 16
culturele krachten....................................................................................................................... 17
, voorbeelden pestle: ready to eat meals ........................................................................................ 17
monitoring the marketing environment ............................................................................................ 17
chapter 3: sustainable marketing and societe ...................................................................................... 18
the environment, society and the changing marketing landscape ...................................................... 18
sustainable marketing .................................................................................................................... 18
maatschappelijk verantwoord ondernemen ..................................................................................... 18
ecologiscal .................................................................................................................................... 18
equitable ....................................................................................................................................... 19
Chapter 4: consumer behaviour.......................................................................................................... 19
why study consumer behaviour? ..................................................................................................... 20
the changing context of consumer behaviour ................................................................................... 21
global consumer culture ................................................................................................................. 21
influences on consumer behaviour .................................................................................................. 22
the dimensions of consumer behaviour ........................................................................................... 24
Wie koopt er: consumer’s buying roles ......................................................................................... 24
hoe kopen ze: the consumer decision-making process ................................................................. 24
waar en wanneer ze kopen .......................................................................................................... 32
chapter 7: market segmentation and positioning ................................................................................. 40
stp: a process with four steps .......................................................................................................... 40
segmentation ................................................................................................................................. 40
segmenting consumer markets ....................................................................................................... 41
target marketing: definition ............................................................................................................. 45
target marketing strategies ............................................................................................................. 48
undifferentiated marketing (examen!!) ......................................................................................... 48
differentiated marketing (examen!!) ............................................................................................. 49
focused marketing (examen!!) ..................................................................................................... 49
customized marketing (examen!!) ................................................................................................ 50
positioning ..................................................................................................................................... 52
key tasks in positioning ............................................................................................................... 52
Keys to successful positioning ..................................................................................................... 52
betekenisvolle differentiatie ............................................................................................................ 55
repositioning strategies .................................................................................................................. 55
building an effective marketing mix .................................................................................................. 56
chapter 8: value through brands ......................................................................................................... 57
products and brands ...................................................................................................................... 57
product line and product mix .......................................................................................................... 57
branding ........................................................................................................................................ 58
, brand equity ................................................................................................................................... 59
brand building ................................................................................................................................ 61
brand name strategies and choices ............................................................................................. 63
rebranding .................................................................................................................................. 64
brand and line extension ............................................................................................................. 66
co-branding ................................................................................................................................ 67
global branding .............................................................................................................................. 68
Chapter 9: value through pricing ......................................................................................................... 70
economist approach to pricing ........................................................................................................ 70
pricing methods ............................................................................................................................. 71
Gastcollege: coca-cola ...................................................................................................................... 85
introductie ..................................................................................................................................... 85
Consumer tribes: the new vision of social groupings and how we implement it in Coca-Cola .............. 86
Why did tribes emerge: ................................................................................................................ 86
Classical segmentation based on socio-demographic criteria have lost their relevance .................. 86
what is a tribe ............................................................................................................................. 87
brand message in tribe ................................................................................................................ 88
Definitions of tribes and their benefits .......................................................................................... 88
Definitions of personas ............................................................................................................... 89
tribe application ............................................................................................................................. 89
chapter 11: value through service ....................................................................................................... 90
what is a service? ........................................................................................................................... 90
categories of services ..................................................................................................................... 90
the nature of services ..................................................................................................................... 91
evaluating services ......................................................................................................................... 91
service characteristics.................................................................................................................... 92
evidence management ................................................................................................................... 92
perishability: differential pricing ...................................................................................................... 93
managing services .......................................................................................................................... 93
managing customer relationships ................................................................................................ 94
managing service quality ............................................................................................................. 94
managing service productivity ..................................................................................................... 94
managing service staff .................................................................................................................... 95
service positioning ......................................................................................................................... 95
service marketing mix ..................................................................................................................... 95
chapter 12: introduction to marketing communication ......................................................................... 97
integrated marketing communications ............................................................................................ 97
, drivers of integrated marketing communications .......................................................................... 97
pros and risks of integrated marketing communications................................................................ 98
the scope of marketing communications ......................................................................................... 98
framework for implementing integrated marketing communications ................................................. 99
marketing strategy & objectives ................................................................................................... 99
setting communication objectives ............................................................................................. 100
selection of creative agency ...................................................................................................... 102
promotional mix selection ......................................................................................................... 102
campaign development and implementation .............................................................................. 103
evaluation before, during and after the campaign ....................................................................... 112
chapter 14: digital marketing and media ............................................................................................ 160
what are digital marketing and digital media................................................................................... 160
viral marketing: example ........................................................................................................... 160
buzz marketing: example ........................................................................................................... 160
viral vs buzz marketing .............................................................................................................. 161
Search engine advertising (SEA) en search engine optimization (SEO) .......................................... 161
Digital display advertising en betaalde media ............................................................................. 162
digital communication environment ........................................................................................... 163
digital marketing and digital media campaign planning ............................................................... 163
creative implementation ........................................................................................................... 164
the dark side of digital marketing ............................................................................................... 165
chapter 16: place: distribution, channel management and retailing .................................................... 166
supply chain ................................................................................................................................ 166
Channel intermediaries ................................................................................................................ 167
functions of channel intermediaries ........................................................................................... 167
types of distribution channels ....................................................................................................... 168
consumer channels .................................................................................................................. 168
B2B channels ........................................................................................................................... 169
services channels ..................................................................................................................... 169
channel strategy ........................................................................................................................... 170
Channel selection ..................................................................................................................... 170
distribution intensity ................................................................................................................. 172
channel integration ................................................................................................................... 173
channel management ................................................................................................................... 174
retailing ....................................................................................................................................... 175
physical retailing ....................................................................................................................... 175
online retailing .......................................................................................................................... 175
,Chapter 17: marketing planning ........................................................................................................ 176
marketing planning context ........................................................................................................... 176
The functions of marketing planning .............................................................................................. 176
Business mission ......................................................................................................................... 177
Business vision ............................................................................................................................ 178
Marketing audit ............................................................................................................................ 178
marketing performance & marketing control system ....................................................................... 179
External analysis: macro environment – micro environment ............................................................ 180
SWOT .......................................................................................................................................... 181
SWOT analysis and strategy development .................................................................................. 181
Critical success factors (csf) / key success factors (ksf) ................................................................. 182
STrategic decision-making ............................................................................................................ 182
strategic objectives ...................................................................................................................... 184
core marketing strategy ................................................................................................................ 184
setting goals................................................................................................................................. 185
tactical ........................................................................................................................................ 186
Chapter 18: analyzing competitors and creating a competitive advantage ........................................... 188
analysing competitive industry structure ....................................................................................... 188
Threat of new entrants: ................................................................................................................. 189
bargaining power of suppliers and buyers ...................................................................................... 190
threat of substitutes ..................................................................................................................... 191
industry competitors .................................................................................................................... 191
competitor analysis ...................................................................................................................... 192
market conditions and implementation actions ............................................................................. 193
competitive strategies .................................................................................................................. 194
creating differential advantage using the marketing mix .................................................................. 195
Alternative modes of competitive behavior .................................................................................... 196
chapter 4: consumer behaviour ........................................................................................................ 197
why study consumer behaviour? ................................................................................................... 197
global consumer culture ............................................................................................................... 198
chapter 19: product strategy: lifecycle, portfolio and growth .............................................................. 199
managing product lines and brand over time: the product lifecycle ................................................. 199
uses of product lifecycle ........................................................................................................... 201
managing brand and product line portfolios ................................................................................... 202
boston consulting group growth-share matrix ............................................................................. 202
managing a balanced product portfolio ...................................................................................... 203
,CHAPTER 1: MARKETING AND THE ORGANISATION
WHAT IS MARKETING
Primaire doel van marketing: Klantenbehoeften begrijpen en vervullen om waarde te creëren.
Definities:
• “Marketing is het proces waarbij bedrijven waarde creëren voor klanten en sterke klantrelaties
opbouwen om in ruil daarvoor waarde van klanten te verkrijgen”
• “The basic function of marketing is to attract and retain customers at a profit”
• “Marketing is de activiteit, het geheel van instellingen en processen voor het creëren,
communiceren, leveren en uitwisselen van aanbiedingen die waarde hebben voor klanten,
cliënten, partners en de samenleving in het algemeen”
Strategisch proces → meer dan verkopen
• Doelgroep begrijpen
• Waarde van aanbiedingen communiceren
• Klantrelaties opbouwen
Waarde:
• Klanten: Noden en wensen tegemoet komen
→ staan centraal (customer centricity)
• Organisatie: Winst
o Financieel
o Maatschappelijk
o Ecologisch
Relatie:
• Lange- vs. Kortetermijndoelstellingen
• Klantenbehoud vs. klantenwerving
Process:
• Stroom van uitwisselingen
• Informatie over consumenten
Marketing is centraal voor business success.
MARKETING AS A STRATEGIC APPROACH
The marketing concept:
Weinig zin om op een goede manier klantenwaarde te
creëren als de concurrentie dit beter doet.
Klantgerichtheid: klant staat in het centrum, je past
alles aan hun noden en behoeften → tevreden maken
en behouden
, Geïntegreerde inspanning: niet elk bedrijf heeft een marketing afdeling. Zelfs als dit wel zo is, moet elke
afdeling mee werken aan de strategie:
• R&D moet rekening houden met noden
• Marketingafdeling kan niet helemaal de prijs bepalen
→ Niet enkel de marketing moet meewerken aan de marketing → gezamenlijke aanpak
Doelrealisatie: iedereen moet geloven in het idee dat de consument centraal staat.
ADOPTING A MARKET ORIENTATION IN A CHANGING WORLD
Behoeften klant: je houdt in de gaten
hoe deze wijzigen, wat hebben de
klanten nodig
Hieruit ga je bepaalde opportuniteiten
herkennen (vb. een nieuwe markt, een
behoefte waar nog geen ander bedrijf
de behoeften van de klant vervult =
latente markt)
Touchpoints: momenten waar als bedrijf (wie dan ook, of wat dan ook) in contact komt met de klant dit
moet 1 centrale boodschap geven, moet geïntegreerd zijn etc.
MARKTORIËNTATIE
Definitie: “Het organisatiebreed genereren van marktinzicht met betrekking tot de huidige en toekomstige
klantbehoeften, het verspreiden van dit inzicht over de verschillende afdelingen en de organisatiebrede
respons daarop”
• Behoeften van consumenten beter begrijpen dan de consumenten zelf
• Het doel is niet langer verkoop, maar klanttevredenheid
Waarom belangrijk? Omdat we starten van klantenbehoeften
• Als consument weten we niet altijd exact wat we willen
• Marktinzicht: het trekken van de behoeften en hoe deze veranderen → daar een lijn in trekken en
dit volgen als bedrijf (het hele bedrijf, niet enkel de marketingafdeling)
• Klantentevredenheid → leid tot trouwe klanten
PRODUCT ORIENTATION
Staat tegenover marktoriëntatie
Klanten komen pas later in het proces aanbod →
interne focus: we statten meer van wat het bedrijf
kan doen, en minder van wat de klant nodig heeft
