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Terrorism & counterterrorism
Security Studies – Leiden university
2025/2026
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Table of Contents
Lecture 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 4
Schmid – definition terrorism ................................................................................................................ 4
Toros – we don’t negotiate with terrorists ............................................................................................ 5
Boaz Ganor – defining terrorism ........................................................................................................... 7
Notes lecture 1- Exploring ...................................................................................................................... 9
Lecture 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Tarrow – Cycles of Collective Action ................................................................................................... 12
Tilly – Terror, terrorism, terrorist ....................................................................................................... 14
Stohl – The state as a terrorist ............................................................................................................. 16
Notes lecture 2 – Exploring .................................................................................................................. 19
Lecture 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 25
Rapoport – The four waves of modern terrorism .............................................................................. 25
Parker & Sitter – The four Horsemen of Terrorism .......................................................................... 31
Notes lecture 3 – Exploring .................................................................................................................. 32
Lecture 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 38
Dowling – Pulling the brakes on political violence ............................................................................. 38
Morrison – The Provisional Irish Republican Army ......................................................................... 40
Notes lecture 4 – Exploring .................................................................................................................. 43
Lecture 5 ....................................................................................................................................... 53
Seran de Leede – Women in Jihad ....................................................................................................... 53
Phelan – Special issue introduction for terrorism, gender, and women ........................................... 56
Notes lecture 5 – Understanding .......................................................................................................... 58
Lecture 6 ....................................................................................................................................... 59
Schuurman – Research on Terrorism.................................................................................................. 59
Schmid – Radicalization, de-radicalization and counter-radicalization .......................................... 61
Notes lecture 6 – Understanding .......................................................................................................... 64
....................................................................................................................................................... 70
Lecture 7 ....................................................................................................................................... 73
Horgan – From Profiles to Pathways .................................................................................................. 73
Sarma et al. – Mental disorder, psychological problems and terrorist behavior ............................ 76
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Notes lecture 7 – Understanding .......................................................................................................... 77
Lecture 8 ....................................................................................................................................... 83
Crenshaw – Causes of terrorism .......................................................................................................... 83
LaFree & Ackerman – The empirical study of terrorism.................................................................. 86
Schuurman & Carthy – Understanding non-involvement in terrorist violence.............................. 89
Notes lecture 8 - Understanding ........................................................................................................... 90
Lecture 9 ....................................................................................................................................... 98
Pape – The strategic logic of suicide terrorism ................................................................................... 98
Thomas – Wolves in sheep’s clothing ................................................................................................ 100
Notes lecture 9 – Understanding ........................................................................................................ 102
Lecture 10 ................................................................................................................................... 105
Spaaij – The Enigma of Lone Wolf Terrorism.................................................................................. 105
Schuurman et al. – End of the Lone Wolf ......................................................................................... 108
Notes lecture 10 – Understanding ...................................................................................................... 110
Lecture 11 .................................................................................................................................... 121
Harris-Hogan, Barrella & Zammit – What is countering violent extremism................................ 121
Schuurman – Defeated by popular demand ..................................................................................... 123
Miller – Confronting terrorism .......................................................................................................... 126
Notes lecture 11 – Doing...................................................................................................................... 129
Lecture 12 ................................................................................................................................... 137
AIVD Annual report 2024 .................................................................................................................. 137
Notes lecture 12 – Doing ..................................................................................................................... 138
Lecture 13 ................................................................................................................................... 140
Kruglanski et al. – The making of violent extremists ...................................................................... 140
Schmid – Al-Qaeda’s single narrative and attempts to develop counter-narratives..................... 142
Notes lecture 13 – Doing ..................................................................................................................... 143
Lecture 14 ................................................................................................................................... 151
Notes lecture 14 – Recap ..................................................................................................................... 151
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Lecture 1
Schmid – definition terrorism
Not one exact term for terrorism: Bigo – “terrorism does not exist: or more precisely, it is not a
usable concept in social sciences”.
Academics would move away from defining this concept, leaving the concept of terrorism to
terrorists, counter-terrorism officials and the public media.
UN not one legal definition à
- Not one good enough scientific definition
- Positions taken by the Organization of the Islamic Conference
European Union’s framework decision on combating terrorism of 2002 defining terrorism as:
Criminal offences against persons and property that may seriously damage a country or
international organization where committed with the aim of seriously intimidating a population or
unduly compelling a government or international organization to perform or abstain from
performing any act; or seriously destabilizing or destroying the fundamental political, economic
or social structure of a country or an international organization.
This definition misses:
- Raw emotions that terrorists seek to provoke and exploit through their deliberately staged
atrocities and norm violations.
- Communicative function of terrorist violence which is direct against one group to influence
others
Definition sharpened in early 1980s: Terrorism is tactic employed in three main contexts:
- Illegal state repression
- Propagandistic agitation by non-state actors in times of peace or outside zones of conflict
- As in illicit tactic of irregular warfare employed by state- and non-state actors
Terrorism refers to both ideas (ideology) and action (behavior) à Distinguished to have a clear
definition if it is an insurgent or a terrorist: different ideas/actions
- Doctrine about presumed effectiveness of a special form or tactic of fear-generating,
coercive political violence
- Conspiratorial practice of calculated, demonstrative, direct violent action without legal or
moral restraints, targeting mainly civilians and non-combatants, performed for its
propagandistic and psychological effects on various audiences and conflict parties
Different understandings of types of terrorism make the search of radicalization to terrorism
complex: Opinions of experts
Terrorism & counterterrorism
Security Studies – Leiden university
2025/2026
, 2
Table of Contents
Lecture 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 4
Schmid – definition terrorism ................................................................................................................ 4
Toros – we don’t negotiate with terrorists ............................................................................................ 5
Boaz Ganor – defining terrorism ........................................................................................................... 7
Notes lecture 1- Exploring ...................................................................................................................... 9
Lecture 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Tarrow – Cycles of Collective Action ................................................................................................... 12
Tilly – Terror, terrorism, terrorist ....................................................................................................... 14
Stohl – The state as a terrorist ............................................................................................................. 16
Notes lecture 2 – Exploring .................................................................................................................. 19
Lecture 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 25
Rapoport – The four waves of modern terrorism .............................................................................. 25
Parker & Sitter – The four Horsemen of Terrorism .......................................................................... 31
Notes lecture 3 – Exploring .................................................................................................................. 32
Lecture 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 38
Dowling – Pulling the brakes on political violence ............................................................................. 38
Morrison – The Provisional Irish Republican Army ......................................................................... 40
Notes lecture 4 – Exploring .................................................................................................................. 43
Lecture 5 ....................................................................................................................................... 53
Seran de Leede – Women in Jihad ....................................................................................................... 53
Phelan – Special issue introduction for terrorism, gender, and women ........................................... 56
Notes lecture 5 – Understanding .......................................................................................................... 58
Lecture 6 ....................................................................................................................................... 59
Schuurman – Research on Terrorism.................................................................................................. 59
Schmid – Radicalization, de-radicalization and counter-radicalization .......................................... 61
Notes lecture 6 – Understanding .......................................................................................................... 64
....................................................................................................................................................... 70
Lecture 7 ....................................................................................................................................... 73
Horgan – From Profiles to Pathways .................................................................................................. 73
Sarma et al. – Mental disorder, psychological problems and terrorist behavior ............................ 76
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Notes lecture 7 – Understanding .......................................................................................................... 77
Lecture 8 ....................................................................................................................................... 83
Crenshaw – Causes of terrorism .......................................................................................................... 83
LaFree & Ackerman – The empirical study of terrorism.................................................................. 86
Schuurman & Carthy – Understanding non-involvement in terrorist violence.............................. 89
Notes lecture 8 - Understanding ........................................................................................................... 90
Lecture 9 ....................................................................................................................................... 98
Pape – The strategic logic of suicide terrorism ................................................................................... 98
Thomas – Wolves in sheep’s clothing ................................................................................................ 100
Notes lecture 9 – Understanding ........................................................................................................ 102
Lecture 10 ................................................................................................................................... 105
Spaaij – The Enigma of Lone Wolf Terrorism.................................................................................. 105
Schuurman et al. – End of the Lone Wolf ......................................................................................... 108
Notes lecture 10 – Understanding ...................................................................................................... 110
Lecture 11 .................................................................................................................................... 121
Harris-Hogan, Barrella & Zammit – What is countering violent extremism................................ 121
Schuurman – Defeated by popular demand ..................................................................................... 123
Miller – Confronting terrorism .......................................................................................................... 126
Notes lecture 11 – Doing...................................................................................................................... 129
Lecture 12 ................................................................................................................................... 137
AIVD Annual report 2024 .................................................................................................................. 137
Notes lecture 12 – Doing ..................................................................................................................... 138
Lecture 13 ................................................................................................................................... 140
Kruglanski et al. – The making of violent extremists ...................................................................... 140
Schmid – Al-Qaeda’s single narrative and attempts to develop counter-narratives..................... 142
Notes lecture 13 – Doing ..................................................................................................................... 143
Lecture 14 ................................................................................................................................... 151
Notes lecture 14 – Recap ..................................................................................................................... 151
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Lecture 1
Schmid – definition terrorism
Not one exact term for terrorism: Bigo – “terrorism does not exist: or more precisely, it is not a
usable concept in social sciences”.
Academics would move away from defining this concept, leaving the concept of terrorism to
terrorists, counter-terrorism officials and the public media.
UN not one legal definition à
- Not one good enough scientific definition
- Positions taken by the Organization of the Islamic Conference
European Union’s framework decision on combating terrorism of 2002 defining terrorism as:
Criminal offences against persons and property that may seriously damage a country or
international organization where committed with the aim of seriously intimidating a population or
unduly compelling a government or international organization to perform or abstain from
performing any act; or seriously destabilizing or destroying the fundamental political, economic
or social structure of a country or an international organization.
This definition misses:
- Raw emotions that terrorists seek to provoke and exploit through their deliberately staged
atrocities and norm violations.
- Communicative function of terrorist violence which is direct against one group to influence
others
Definition sharpened in early 1980s: Terrorism is tactic employed in three main contexts:
- Illegal state repression
- Propagandistic agitation by non-state actors in times of peace or outside zones of conflict
- As in illicit tactic of irregular warfare employed by state- and non-state actors
Terrorism refers to both ideas (ideology) and action (behavior) à Distinguished to have a clear
definition if it is an insurgent or a terrorist: different ideas/actions
- Doctrine about presumed effectiveness of a special form or tactic of fear-generating,
coercive political violence
- Conspiratorial practice of calculated, demonstrative, direct violent action without legal or
moral restraints, targeting mainly civilians and non-combatants, performed for its
propagandistic and psychological effects on various audiences and conflict parties
Different understandings of types of terrorism make the search of radicalization to terrorism
complex: Opinions of experts
