Chapter 4, Born to be bad.
Science & criminal justice are linked with DNA and databanks containing considerable
information, including fingerprints, palm prints, facial recognition, as well as voice, signature,
keystroke and gait recognition. Biometrics are used by governments and business
organisations to fight fraud, organised crime and terrorism.
Malignant tumor in the hypothalamus → causes irrational outbursts.
Since the 16th century biological explanations of crime have appeared.
Biological explanations for crime did not become fully established until the late 1800s.
Humanspysionomy: Study of facial features. Della Porta studied the relationship between the
human body and crime.
Kaspar lavater:1760s, claimed to have found a relationship between behavior and facial
structure.
Liberals: View biological theories as efforts to shift responsibility away from social factors
that cause crime and onto criminal individuals.
Conservatives: Support biological theories, but are more tense upon discussions of their
history. Also look doubtfully at biological risk factors as they ignore social influences.
Biological and positivist assumptions
Biological criminologists: Humans have unique characteristics or predispositions that under
certain conditions lead some to commit criminal acts.
Early biological criminologists: The key to understanding crime was to study the criminal
actor.
Positivist method: Argues that social relations and events can be studied scientifically using
methods derived from the natural sciences.
- Aim: To search for, explain and predict future patterns of social behavior.
Criminal anthropologists: Criminals could be explained by physical laws that denied any free
will.
New scientific criminology: Founded on positivist assumptions. Valued the experimental
method empirical.
The born criminal
Lombroso: Father of modern criminology.
- Explored differences between noncriminal people and those who committed criminal
offenses.
- Atavism: Condition whereby characteristics that disappeared during the process of
revolution suddenly recur.
- → Because of atavism Lombroso thought he could recognise criminals by
visible abnormalities which he called atavistic features. According to Lombroso,
there are some anomalies you could recognise them of. These can be examined and
counted.
- Lombrosso wanted to turn criminology into empirical science, called criminal
anthropology. From analysing the nature of crime → To analysing the
characteristics of the criminal.
, - Most criminals do lack free will: Lombroso recognised 4 main classes of criminals.
1. Born criminals (atavistic). These are responsible for the most serious offences.
These criminals are the most dangerous ones.
2. Criminals by passion: Commit crime to correct the emotional pain of an injustice.
3. Insane criminal: Could be an imbecile or have an affected brain and is unable to
distinguish right from wrong.
4. Occasional criminal. This type has another 4 subtypes:
a. Criminaloid: Is of weak nature and easily swayed by others.
b. The epileptoid: Suffers from epilepsy.
c. Habitual criminal: Whose occupation is crime.
d. The pseudo criminal: Who commits crime by accident.
- Lombrosso also said that socio-environmental factors influence crime.
- Lombrosso shifted from biological criminologist to environmental criminologist.
Ferri: Causes of crime were physical, anthropological and social. He rejected the idea that
crime was a free choice. He thought it was pointless to retributively punish offenders. He
thought prevention was important (substitution).
- Remove/minimize causes of crime. Advocated therapeutic remedies.
Garofalo: Argued that criminals who were unable to adapt to society, should be eliminated
consistent with nature's evolutionary process (adaptation).
3 methods:
- Death
- Imprisonment
- Enforced reparation.
Early US family-type & body type theories
Dugdale: The burden of crime is found in illegitimate family-lines, that the eldest child has a
tendency to be criminal, and that males are more likely than females to be criminal.
Sheldon and colleagues wanted to explain the relationship between body type and
temperament. Body type theories tell us more about who is more likely to be processed
through criminal justice agencies than what causes crime.
Contemporary biological perspectives
In the 21st century biological as well as environmental factors became important for
criminology. Genes became important. In 1959 they were used to explain every detail of
individuals.
→ Men thought crime was the outcome of some genetically conveyed heritable
factor.
If this was true, we would expect to find more crime in twins or between siblings.
- Monozygotic (MZ) 100% same genes.
- Dizygotic (DZ) 50% same genes.
Researchers compared twins and found out that there are greater similarities in criminal
convictions between identical (MZ) twins than between fraternal (BZ) twins. This supports
the genetic basis for crime.
,Critiques:
- Dependance on official crime data.
- Unreliable process for classifying twins.
- Error/bias.
The environmental situation is not taken into account.
Environmental confusion could be taken care of by doing adoption studies. Studying twins
that where adopted away form their birth family. Several studies show that some relation
exists between biological parents behavior and the behavior of children, even when their
contact has been non-existent.
Critique:
- Selective placement: Adoption agencies may match the adoptive home with the
natural home.
Biosocial criminology
Gene is the ultimate unit of life that controls all human destiny.
- Biosocial criminologists believe that environment and experience also have an
impact on behavior. Their main assertion is that: Most actions are controlled by a
person's biological machine.
- People are controlled by their innate need to have their genetic material survive and
dominate others: The selfish gene.
Criminal behavior is believed to be a result from the combinations of heredity factors
interacting with environmental ones.
Theory of violence: A variant of gene either overexpresses or underexpresses a chemical
that affects a region of the brain. A region of chromosomes where there are variants of a
gene that regulates the production of the MAOA enzyme.
- Individuals with a gene that results in a low MAOA activity are twice as likely to join a
gang, found a study.
In addition to the interaction between genetic predispositions and environment,
contemporary biological theorists do not abandon the notion of free will. They use the
concept of conditional free will: Various factors restrict and channel an individual's decision
to act and each collaborates internally and externally to produce the final action.
Chromosomes, Nervous system, Attention deficit Disorder, Hormones and the Brain
Individuals choose a path of action within a preset, yet changeable, range of possibilities and
that, assuming the conditions are suitable for rational thought, we are accountable for our
actions.
If one or more conditions to which the individual is exposed is disturbed/irregular, the
individual is more likely to choose a disturbed or irregular course of action.
ANS Theory: That the autonomic nervous systems is the sector that is largely responsible for
controlling arousal and the ability to adopt law abiding behavior is a learned trait.
, - ADD and ADHD are possible heritable factors in criminology.
- Studies conducted in several countries indicated that ⅔ of institutionalized young
offenders and ½ of adult prisoners has ADHD.
- People with ADHD are less able to cope with strain in legitimate ways.
Neurotransmitters: Chemicals released by electrical signals given off by nerves that transmit
information to receptors in the brain.
- Serotonin is such a chemical. This inhibits aggression. Low levels of this chemical
can cause a failure in inhibiting violent and impulsive behavior.
- Dopamine is also such a chemical that offsets the effects of low serotonin.
Some people have lower than average emotional arousal. Some people have a low
dopamine level. To raise these levels, such individuals engage in super-challenging or
intensely stimulating activities.
- Ellis argues that we can expect higher criminality levels from sensation seekers. This
sensation seeking is biological determination. Ellis theory about arousal may explain
corporal and white collar crime.
- Ellis theory based on reproductive drives: Explaines behavior like rape, child abuse,
cheating and even theft. It is in men’s reproductive interest to behave a a sexual
predator.
Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory (ENA):
Most recent version of Ellis biocriminology explains the higher rates of violent crimes
committed by males. Asserts that evolutionary, neurological and hormonal factors are all
involved in crime causation. 2 fundamental assumptions:
1. Males have been naturally selected for engaging in resource procurement and status
striving.
2. Fetal exposure of male brains to androgens makes them more prone to competitive
status striving than females and that criminality is part of a continuum of activities
involving status striving in which males are the main offenders.
Cheater theory:
Some men are sexually aggressive seeking to dominate as many women as possible. They
may use illegal sources and violence.
Summary:
Early biological hereditary studies could not be confirmed by later studies. The studies had
serious methodological problems. Biological theories have mixed validity. Modern biological
theories do not state only biological defects produce criminal acts but rather biological
factors in conjunction with certain environmental or social factors limit choices to those that
make criminal behavior more probable.
These studies have not ruled out the possibility that physical and chemical changes in the
brain are themselves the result, rather than the cause of criminal behavior.
Summary biological theory:
Science & criminal justice are linked with DNA and databanks containing considerable
information, including fingerprints, palm prints, facial recognition, as well as voice, signature,
keystroke and gait recognition. Biometrics are used by governments and business
organisations to fight fraud, organised crime and terrorism.
Malignant tumor in the hypothalamus → causes irrational outbursts.
Since the 16th century biological explanations of crime have appeared.
Biological explanations for crime did not become fully established until the late 1800s.
Humanspysionomy: Study of facial features. Della Porta studied the relationship between the
human body and crime.
Kaspar lavater:1760s, claimed to have found a relationship between behavior and facial
structure.
Liberals: View biological theories as efforts to shift responsibility away from social factors
that cause crime and onto criminal individuals.
Conservatives: Support biological theories, but are more tense upon discussions of their
history. Also look doubtfully at biological risk factors as they ignore social influences.
Biological and positivist assumptions
Biological criminologists: Humans have unique characteristics or predispositions that under
certain conditions lead some to commit criminal acts.
Early biological criminologists: The key to understanding crime was to study the criminal
actor.
Positivist method: Argues that social relations and events can be studied scientifically using
methods derived from the natural sciences.
- Aim: To search for, explain and predict future patterns of social behavior.
Criminal anthropologists: Criminals could be explained by physical laws that denied any free
will.
New scientific criminology: Founded on positivist assumptions. Valued the experimental
method empirical.
The born criminal
Lombroso: Father of modern criminology.
- Explored differences between noncriminal people and those who committed criminal
offenses.
- Atavism: Condition whereby characteristics that disappeared during the process of
revolution suddenly recur.
- → Because of atavism Lombroso thought he could recognise criminals by
visible abnormalities which he called atavistic features. According to Lombroso,
there are some anomalies you could recognise them of. These can be examined and
counted.
- Lombrosso wanted to turn criminology into empirical science, called criminal
anthropology. From analysing the nature of crime → To analysing the
characteristics of the criminal.
, - Most criminals do lack free will: Lombroso recognised 4 main classes of criminals.
1. Born criminals (atavistic). These are responsible for the most serious offences.
These criminals are the most dangerous ones.
2. Criminals by passion: Commit crime to correct the emotional pain of an injustice.
3. Insane criminal: Could be an imbecile or have an affected brain and is unable to
distinguish right from wrong.
4. Occasional criminal. This type has another 4 subtypes:
a. Criminaloid: Is of weak nature and easily swayed by others.
b. The epileptoid: Suffers from epilepsy.
c. Habitual criminal: Whose occupation is crime.
d. The pseudo criminal: Who commits crime by accident.
- Lombrosso also said that socio-environmental factors influence crime.
- Lombrosso shifted from biological criminologist to environmental criminologist.
Ferri: Causes of crime were physical, anthropological and social. He rejected the idea that
crime was a free choice. He thought it was pointless to retributively punish offenders. He
thought prevention was important (substitution).
- Remove/minimize causes of crime. Advocated therapeutic remedies.
Garofalo: Argued that criminals who were unable to adapt to society, should be eliminated
consistent with nature's evolutionary process (adaptation).
3 methods:
- Death
- Imprisonment
- Enforced reparation.
Early US family-type & body type theories
Dugdale: The burden of crime is found in illegitimate family-lines, that the eldest child has a
tendency to be criminal, and that males are more likely than females to be criminal.
Sheldon and colleagues wanted to explain the relationship between body type and
temperament. Body type theories tell us more about who is more likely to be processed
through criminal justice agencies than what causes crime.
Contemporary biological perspectives
In the 21st century biological as well as environmental factors became important for
criminology. Genes became important. In 1959 they were used to explain every detail of
individuals.
→ Men thought crime was the outcome of some genetically conveyed heritable
factor.
If this was true, we would expect to find more crime in twins or between siblings.
- Monozygotic (MZ) 100% same genes.
- Dizygotic (DZ) 50% same genes.
Researchers compared twins and found out that there are greater similarities in criminal
convictions between identical (MZ) twins than between fraternal (BZ) twins. This supports
the genetic basis for crime.
,Critiques:
- Dependance on official crime data.
- Unreliable process for classifying twins.
- Error/bias.
The environmental situation is not taken into account.
Environmental confusion could be taken care of by doing adoption studies. Studying twins
that where adopted away form their birth family. Several studies show that some relation
exists between biological parents behavior and the behavior of children, even when their
contact has been non-existent.
Critique:
- Selective placement: Adoption agencies may match the adoptive home with the
natural home.
Biosocial criminology
Gene is the ultimate unit of life that controls all human destiny.
- Biosocial criminologists believe that environment and experience also have an
impact on behavior. Their main assertion is that: Most actions are controlled by a
person's biological machine.
- People are controlled by their innate need to have their genetic material survive and
dominate others: The selfish gene.
Criminal behavior is believed to be a result from the combinations of heredity factors
interacting with environmental ones.
Theory of violence: A variant of gene either overexpresses or underexpresses a chemical
that affects a region of the brain. A region of chromosomes where there are variants of a
gene that regulates the production of the MAOA enzyme.
- Individuals with a gene that results in a low MAOA activity are twice as likely to join a
gang, found a study.
In addition to the interaction between genetic predispositions and environment,
contemporary biological theorists do not abandon the notion of free will. They use the
concept of conditional free will: Various factors restrict and channel an individual's decision
to act and each collaborates internally and externally to produce the final action.
Chromosomes, Nervous system, Attention deficit Disorder, Hormones and the Brain
Individuals choose a path of action within a preset, yet changeable, range of possibilities and
that, assuming the conditions are suitable for rational thought, we are accountable for our
actions.
If one or more conditions to which the individual is exposed is disturbed/irregular, the
individual is more likely to choose a disturbed or irregular course of action.
ANS Theory: That the autonomic nervous systems is the sector that is largely responsible for
controlling arousal and the ability to adopt law abiding behavior is a learned trait.
, - ADD and ADHD are possible heritable factors in criminology.
- Studies conducted in several countries indicated that ⅔ of institutionalized young
offenders and ½ of adult prisoners has ADHD.
- People with ADHD are less able to cope with strain in legitimate ways.
Neurotransmitters: Chemicals released by electrical signals given off by nerves that transmit
information to receptors in the brain.
- Serotonin is such a chemical. This inhibits aggression. Low levels of this chemical
can cause a failure in inhibiting violent and impulsive behavior.
- Dopamine is also such a chemical that offsets the effects of low serotonin.
Some people have lower than average emotional arousal. Some people have a low
dopamine level. To raise these levels, such individuals engage in super-challenging or
intensely stimulating activities.
- Ellis argues that we can expect higher criminality levels from sensation seekers. This
sensation seeking is biological determination. Ellis theory about arousal may explain
corporal and white collar crime.
- Ellis theory based on reproductive drives: Explaines behavior like rape, child abuse,
cheating and even theft. It is in men’s reproductive interest to behave a a sexual
predator.
Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory (ENA):
Most recent version of Ellis biocriminology explains the higher rates of violent crimes
committed by males. Asserts that evolutionary, neurological and hormonal factors are all
involved in crime causation. 2 fundamental assumptions:
1. Males have been naturally selected for engaging in resource procurement and status
striving.
2. Fetal exposure of male brains to androgens makes them more prone to competitive
status striving than females and that criminality is part of a continuum of activities
involving status striving in which males are the main offenders.
Cheater theory:
Some men are sexually aggressive seeking to dominate as many women as possible. They
may use illegal sources and violence.
Summary:
Early biological hereditary studies could not be confirmed by later studies. The studies had
serious methodological problems. Biological theories have mixed validity. Modern biological
theories do not state only biological defects produce criminal acts but rather biological
factors in conjunction with certain environmental or social factors limit choices to those that
make criminal behavior more probable.
These studies have not ruled out the possibility that physical and chemical changes in the
brain are themselves the result, rather than the cause of criminal behavior.
Summary biological theory:
