Introduction to Sociology – summary of the lecture slides
Lecture 1 — Why Sociology?
What is Sociology?
Sociology is one of the main social sciences — next to psychology, economics, and political science.
It studies how people live together in society, how they behave in groups, and how organizations and
institutions shape our lives. It looks at:
Organizations in context: how they are influenced by the society around them.
Organizations as actors: how they themselves make choices and affect others.
Sociology of policy: using sociological insights to give policy advice.
The Four Core Values (the 4 C’s)
1. Connected – We are connected to each other, to society, to other cultures, and to other
academic fields. We value diversity and different perspectives.
2. Curious – We explore new knowledge and think creatively to innovate.
3. Caring – We respect others, treat everyone equally, and give constructive feedback.
4. Courageous – We think independently, question ideas, take risks, and learn from mistakes.
The Paradox of Modern Society
Modern society values individuality (being unique, authentic, independent).
But at the same time, humans are social beings — we need others and live in groups.
-> Sociology studies how this tension between individuality and social belonging works.
What Does Sociology Do?
Sociology:
Systematically studies human society.
Looks at patterns in thinking, feeling, and acting.
Tries to see the general in the particular — even though people differ, there are common
social patterns.
Pros and Cons of Sociology
Pros:
Helps us understand society.
Can be empowering (it helps people act).
Creates recognition — we see our lives as part of larger social forces.
Debunking: reveals hidden truths behind what seems normal.
Cons:
Society is always changing, so knowledge can age quickly.
Sociologists are human too — they have biases.
It sometimes becomes part of political debates.
,Defining Sociology
Sociology = “The science of society.”
It studies social and societal problems (like poverty, inequality, divorce, terrorism).
So, it’s both:
Scientific: based on facts, not myths or religion.
Practical: about real social issues.
What Counts as a Social Problem? (C.J.M. Schuyt)
A situation becomes a social problem when:
1. It affects many people.
2. It involves private troubles that are shared by many.
3. Problems accumulate.
4. It’s persistent, not temporary.
5. It has systematic causes.
6. It threatens core social values.
Example: dog poo in public is a social problem; losing a soccer match is not.
Sociological Imagination (C. Wright Mills)
This is the ability to connect personal troubles to larger social structures.
It means:
Understanding how society works.
Seeing both theory (thinking) and method (doing).
Questioning what people see as “natural.”
Going beyond common sense ideas.
Sociology vs. Common Sense (Zygmunt Bauman)
Bauman said sociologists should:
1. Speak responsibly – use arguments and evidence.
2. Look beyond their own world – don’t just see your own experience.
3. Make sense of behaviour – by looking at social structures and institutions.
4. Defamiliarize – question things that seem “normal.”
What vs. Why Questions
Sociology focuses on facts (not judgments):
Not: “How can we stop crime?” (normative)
But: “Who commits more crime?” “Why do lower-educated people commit more?”
So sociology asks: What is going on? and Why?
,Three Types of Problems
Type Description
Social problems Real issues in society (e.g., poverty, crime)
Scientific questions about why those issues
Sociological problems
happen
Social policy problems Practical: what should we do about them?
Sociological vs. Social Problems
Sociological Social
About logic and explanation About values and action
Objective (find causes) Normative (is it good or bad?)
Levels of Sociology
1. Micro: individuals and small groups (family, friends).
2. Meso: organizations (school, workplace).
3. Macro: whole societies (government, culture).
Sociology vs. Psychology
Psychology Sociology
Focus on individuals Focus on society
Explains behaviour by mental factors (psyche) Explains behaviour by social context
(Not a perfect split — they overlap sometimes).
Three Key Questions in Sociology
1. Social Inequality – How are resources (money, power, status) unequally divided?
→ Karl Marx
2. Social Cohesion – How do people live peacefully together?
→ Emile Durkheim
3. Rationalization / Culture – How does society become more efficient, organized, and rule-
based?
→ Max Weber
These are called the founding questions of sociology.
Why These Questions?
They are classical and always relevant.
They are broad — each leads to new research and theories.
They give unity in chaos — help us understand patterns in society.
Lecture 2 – What is Theory?
, Myths vs. Science
In the past, people explained the world through myths — stories or beliefs about how and why things
happen.
Over time, science replaced myths with facts, observations, and theories.
-> Sociology is part of the sciences — it studies society using evidence and logic, not opinions.
The Empirical Cycle (P–T–O)
Step Meaning Question
P Problem Why? – What’s the reason?
T Theory Maybe because…? – A possible explanation
O Observation Is it true? – Testing through research
Two ways to start:
PTO-PTO → starts with a why-question
PO-PTO → starts with a what-question
Rules for Good Sociological Questions
A good sociological question:
1. Is a real what or why question (ends with a question mark).
2. Is clear, structured, and specific.
3. Can be answered with research.
4. Follows a logical order.
The order of sociological questions:
1. Descriptive: What is happening?
2. Trend/comparative: How is it happening compared to…?
3. Explanatory: Why is it happening?
4. Test question: Is it happening because of…?
5. Application question: Does this policy cause…?
What Is a Theory?
A theory is a preliminary answer to a why-question.
It gives an explanation or prediction for a phenomenon.
A theory has two parts:
1. Proposition (P): The main statement or explanation.
2. Condition (C): The circumstances under which it applies.
Sociologists use a deductive model to build and test theories.
Deduction vs. Induction
Lecture 1 — Why Sociology?
What is Sociology?
Sociology is one of the main social sciences — next to psychology, economics, and political science.
It studies how people live together in society, how they behave in groups, and how organizations and
institutions shape our lives. It looks at:
Organizations in context: how they are influenced by the society around them.
Organizations as actors: how they themselves make choices and affect others.
Sociology of policy: using sociological insights to give policy advice.
The Four Core Values (the 4 C’s)
1. Connected – We are connected to each other, to society, to other cultures, and to other
academic fields. We value diversity and different perspectives.
2. Curious – We explore new knowledge and think creatively to innovate.
3. Caring – We respect others, treat everyone equally, and give constructive feedback.
4. Courageous – We think independently, question ideas, take risks, and learn from mistakes.
The Paradox of Modern Society
Modern society values individuality (being unique, authentic, independent).
But at the same time, humans are social beings — we need others and live in groups.
-> Sociology studies how this tension between individuality and social belonging works.
What Does Sociology Do?
Sociology:
Systematically studies human society.
Looks at patterns in thinking, feeling, and acting.
Tries to see the general in the particular — even though people differ, there are common
social patterns.
Pros and Cons of Sociology
Pros:
Helps us understand society.
Can be empowering (it helps people act).
Creates recognition — we see our lives as part of larger social forces.
Debunking: reveals hidden truths behind what seems normal.
Cons:
Society is always changing, so knowledge can age quickly.
Sociologists are human too — they have biases.
It sometimes becomes part of political debates.
,Defining Sociology
Sociology = “The science of society.”
It studies social and societal problems (like poverty, inequality, divorce, terrorism).
So, it’s both:
Scientific: based on facts, not myths or religion.
Practical: about real social issues.
What Counts as a Social Problem? (C.J.M. Schuyt)
A situation becomes a social problem when:
1. It affects many people.
2. It involves private troubles that are shared by many.
3. Problems accumulate.
4. It’s persistent, not temporary.
5. It has systematic causes.
6. It threatens core social values.
Example: dog poo in public is a social problem; losing a soccer match is not.
Sociological Imagination (C. Wright Mills)
This is the ability to connect personal troubles to larger social structures.
It means:
Understanding how society works.
Seeing both theory (thinking) and method (doing).
Questioning what people see as “natural.”
Going beyond common sense ideas.
Sociology vs. Common Sense (Zygmunt Bauman)
Bauman said sociologists should:
1. Speak responsibly – use arguments and evidence.
2. Look beyond their own world – don’t just see your own experience.
3. Make sense of behaviour – by looking at social structures and institutions.
4. Defamiliarize – question things that seem “normal.”
What vs. Why Questions
Sociology focuses on facts (not judgments):
Not: “How can we stop crime?” (normative)
But: “Who commits more crime?” “Why do lower-educated people commit more?”
So sociology asks: What is going on? and Why?
,Three Types of Problems
Type Description
Social problems Real issues in society (e.g., poverty, crime)
Scientific questions about why those issues
Sociological problems
happen
Social policy problems Practical: what should we do about them?
Sociological vs. Social Problems
Sociological Social
About logic and explanation About values and action
Objective (find causes) Normative (is it good or bad?)
Levels of Sociology
1. Micro: individuals and small groups (family, friends).
2. Meso: organizations (school, workplace).
3. Macro: whole societies (government, culture).
Sociology vs. Psychology
Psychology Sociology
Focus on individuals Focus on society
Explains behaviour by mental factors (psyche) Explains behaviour by social context
(Not a perfect split — they overlap sometimes).
Three Key Questions in Sociology
1. Social Inequality – How are resources (money, power, status) unequally divided?
→ Karl Marx
2. Social Cohesion – How do people live peacefully together?
→ Emile Durkheim
3. Rationalization / Culture – How does society become more efficient, organized, and rule-
based?
→ Max Weber
These are called the founding questions of sociology.
Why These Questions?
They are classical and always relevant.
They are broad — each leads to new research and theories.
They give unity in chaos — help us understand patterns in society.
Lecture 2 – What is Theory?
, Myths vs. Science
In the past, people explained the world through myths — stories or beliefs about how and why things
happen.
Over time, science replaced myths with facts, observations, and theories.
-> Sociology is part of the sciences — it studies society using evidence and logic, not opinions.
The Empirical Cycle (P–T–O)
Step Meaning Question
P Problem Why? – What’s the reason?
T Theory Maybe because…? – A possible explanation
O Observation Is it true? – Testing through research
Two ways to start:
PTO-PTO → starts with a why-question
PO-PTO → starts with a what-question
Rules for Good Sociological Questions
A good sociological question:
1. Is a real what or why question (ends with a question mark).
2. Is clear, structured, and specific.
3. Can be answered with research.
4. Follows a logical order.
The order of sociological questions:
1. Descriptive: What is happening?
2. Trend/comparative: How is it happening compared to…?
3. Explanatory: Why is it happening?
4. Test question: Is it happening because of…?
5. Application question: Does this policy cause…?
What Is a Theory?
A theory is a preliminary answer to a why-question.
It gives an explanation or prediction for a phenomenon.
A theory has two parts:
1. Proposition (P): The main statement or explanation.
2. Condition (C): The circumstances under which it applies.
Sociologists use a deductive model to build and test theories.
Deduction vs. Induction
