PSYCH 1X03 Test Questions and Answers Fully Solved Latest Update 2025-2026
Theory - Answers A general set of ideas about how the world works.
Hypothesis - Answers A testable statement guided by theories that make predictions between 2
variables.
Anecdotal Evidence - Answers Evidence gathered from others or self-experience.
Problems:
- Single experiment does not represent the theory.
- Personal experience might not reflect others.
- Cannot be sure about sole factor affecting results.
Independent Variable - Answers Manipulated by scientist.
Dependent Variable - Answers Observed (measured) by scientist.
Within-participants design - Answers The same sample tests all conditions of the independent
variable.
Pros:
- Minimizes effect of subject differences on dependent variable.
Cons:
- Takes a lot of time and money.
- Practice effect: improved performance over the course of the experiment due to more
experience with the experiment.
Between-subjects design - Answers One group receives experimental treatment, one is in
control. Different people test different conditions of the IV.
Confounding variable - Answers A variable other than the IV that has an effect on the results.
Sample - Answers A group from a larger population that data is collected from (best sample is
randomly selected to avoid bias).
,Population - Answers Group that a researcher is ultimately trying to learn about.
Random sampling - Answers Choosing sample at random from the population to reduce bias,
very hard to achieve total randomness.
Blind experiment - Answers Experiment in which participants do not know if they belong to the
experimental or control group (will often be given placebo, so they remain unsure).
Double-blind experiment - Answers Experiment in which both the researcher and participant do
not know whether they belong to the experimental or control group.
Participant bias - Answers When a participants' actions in an experiment influence the results
outside manipulation of experimenter.
Why?
- Could be done to be seen favourably by researcher.
- Could be done because participants want to see a certain result.
Researcher bias - Answers Actions made by experimenter to promote the result they hope to
achieve, intentional or not.
Placebo effect - Answers When an individual exhibits a response to a treatment that has no real
therapeutic effect (could be considered a form of participant bias?).
Descriptive statistics - Answers Presents information that gives overall idea of the results of the
experiment (mean, median, mode). Also known as measures of central tendency.
Histograms - Answers Visual summarizations of data (e.g., pie chart, bar graph) used to report
the number of times groups of values appear in a data set.
Frequency distribution - Answers Graph that illustrates the distribution of how frequently values
appear in a data set.
Normal distribution - Answers Distribution with a characteristic smooth, symmetrical, bell-
shaped curve containing a single peak.
Standard Deviation - Answers Average distance of each point from the mean.
Lower = smaller spread.
Higher = bigger spread.
,Inferential statistics - Answers Statistics that allow us to use results from experiments to make
inferences about overall populations.
T-test - Answers Can be used to compare the difference between the data from control and
experimental groups.
P-value - Answers Expresses probability calculated by T-test. P-value of <0.05 = statistically
significant. 95% chance that results are significant, 5% chance they are do to chance. Vice versa.
Observational Research - Answers Observes effect of variables without performing any explicit
manipulation, following scientific method.
Correlation (r) - Answers Measure of strength of relationship between 2 variables (note: note
always meaningful).
Even if variables are strongly correlated, doesn't mean for sure the relationship is causing effect.
Correlation and causation are not the same. Measuring how close points are to line of best fit
NOT slope.
Operational definitions - Answers Something that can be objectively measured.
- Critical to evaluating any research.
- Always open to argument.
Asking questions and method analysis - Answers Choices made by psychologists guided by
level of analysis applied. Each researcher operates in different paradigms and gets different
answers.
Parsimony - Answers Choosing simplest theory with most explanatory power.
1. Lowest amount of assumptions.
2. Applied when there are competing explanations that are similar.
e.g. penalty shootout not required if one team wins.
Natural order - Answers Attributing same effects to same causes.
e.g. people smile when they are happy everywhere.
Generalizability - Answers Same causes produce the same effects in experiment/specific
, situation, produce those effects in everyday life.
Conservatism - Answers Scientists tend to support current explanation of something until new
facts prove otherwise.
Empiricism - Answers Knowledge should be based on actual observation, not solely reason.
Inductive reasoning - Answers Building theories based on incidents of observed phenomena.
Facts to theory.
Deductive reasoning - Answers Making predictions about certain phenomena based on claims
of theory. Theory to facts.
Scientific method - Answers 1. Generate theory
2. Make hypothesis
3. Choose research method
4. Collect data
5. Analyze data
6. Report findings
7. Revise theories
Reliability - Answers Consistent output when the same input is entered.
Validity - Answers Ability of a test to measure what it intended to measure.
Case studies - Answers Examination of one particular person, involves long-term study, but not
exactly able to generalize to larger populations. Important for formulating theories.
Correlational studies - Answers Measure of direction and strength of relationship between 2
variables.
Interviews - Answers Advantage: 1-1, allows further investigation and can observe specific
behaviours.
Disadvantage: dishonesty due to social desirability.
Questionnaire - Answers Advantage: can see behaviours that might be hard to see otherwise.
Disadvantage: answers may not be truthful, therefore inadmissible.
Contingent relationship - Answers Presentation of one stimulus reliably leads to presentation of
another.
Theory - Answers A general set of ideas about how the world works.
Hypothesis - Answers A testable statement guided by theories that make predictions between 2
variables.
Anecdotal Evidence - Answers Evidence gathered from others or self-experience.
Problems:
- Single experiment does not represent the theory.
- Personal experience might not reflect others.
- Cannot be sure about sole factor affecting results.
Independent Variable - Answers Manipulated by scientist.
Dependent Variable - Answers Observed (measured) by scientist.
Within-participants design - Answers The same sample tests all conditions of the independent
variable.
Pros:
- Minimizes effect of subject differences on dependent variable.
Cons:
- Takes a lot of time and money.
- Practice effect: improved performance over the course of the experiment due to more
experience with the experiment.
Between-subjects design - Answers One group receives experimental treatment, one is in
control. Different people test different conditions of the IV.
Confounding variable - Answers A variable other than the IV that has an effect on the results.
Sample - Answers A group from a larger population that data is collected from (best sample is
randomly selected to avoid bias).
,Population - Answers Group that a researcher is ultimately trying to learn about.
Random sampling - Answers Choosing sample at random from the population to reduce bias,
very hard to achieve total randomness.
Blind experiment - Answers Experiment in which participants do not know if they belong to the
experimental or control group (will often be given placebo, so they remain unsure).
Double-blind experiment - Answers Experiment in which both the researcher and participant do
not know whether they belong to the experimental or control group.
Participant bias - Answers When a participants' actions in an experiment influence the results
outside manipulation of experimenter.
Why?
- Could be done to be seen favourably by researcher.
- Could be done because participants want to see a certain result.
Researcher bias - Answers Actions made by experimenter to promote the result they hope to
achieve, intentional or not.
Placebo effect - Answers When an individual exhibits a response to a treatment that has no real
therapeutic effect (could be considered a form of participant bias?).
Descriptive statistics - Answers Presents information that gives overall idea of the results of the
experiment (mean, median, mode). Also known as measures of central tendency.
Histograms - Answers Visual summarizations of data (e.g., pie chart, bar graph) used to report
the number of times groups of values appear in a data set.
Frequency distribution - Answers Graph that illustrates the distribution of how frequently values
appear in a data set.
Normal distribution - Answers Distribution with a characteristic smooth, symmetrical, bell-
shaped curve containing a single peak.
Standard Deviation - Answers Average distance of each point from the mean.
Lower = smaller spread.
Higher = bigger spread.
,Inferential statistics - Answers Statistics that allow us to use results from experiments to make
inferences about overall populations.
T-test - Answers Can be used to compare the difference between the data from control and
experimental groups.
P-value - Answers Expresses probability calculated by T-test. P-value of <0.05 = statistically
significant. 95% chance that results are significant, 5% chance they are do to chance. Vice versa.
Observational Research - Answers Observes effect of variables without performing any explicit
manipulation, following scientific method.
Correlation (r) - Answers Measure of strength of relationship between 2 variables (note: note
always meaningful).
Even if variables are strongly correlated, doesn't mean for sure the relationship is causing effect.
Correlation and causation are not the same. Measuring how close points are to line of best fit
NOT slope.
Operational definitions - Answers Something that can be objectively measured.
- Critical to evaluating any research.
- Always open to argument.
Asking questions and method analysis - Answers Choices made by psychologists guided by
level of analysis applied. Each researcher operates in different paradigms and gets different
answers.
Parsimony - Answers Choosing simplest theory with most explanatory power.
1. Lowest amount of assumptions.
2. Applied when there are competing explanations that are similar.
e.g. penalty shootout not required if one team wins.
Natural order - Answers Attributing same effects to same causes.
e.g. people smile when they are happy everywhere.
Generalizability - Answers Same causes produce the same effects in experiment/specific
, situation, produce those effects in everyday life.
Conservatism - Answers Scientists tend to support current explanation of something until new
facts prove otherwise.
Empiricism - Answers Knowledge should be based on actual observation, not solely reason.
Inductive reasoning - Answers Building theories based on incidents of observed phenomena.
Facts to theory.
Deductive reasoning - Answers Making predictions about certain phenomena based on claims
of theory. Theory to facts.
Scientific method - Answers 1. Generate theory
2. Make hypothesis
3. Choose research method
4. Collect data
5. Analyze data
6. Report findings
7. Revise theories
Reliability - Answers Consistent output when the same input is entered.
Validity - Answers Ability of a test to measure what it intended to measure.
Case studies - Answers Examination of one particular person, involves long-term study, but not
exactly able to generalize to larger populations. Important for formulating theories.
Correlational studies - Answers Measure of direction and strength of relationship between 2
variables.
Interviews - Answers Advantage: 1-1, allows further investigation and can observe specific
behaviours.
Disadvantage: dishonesty due to social desirability.
Questionnaire - Answers Advantage: can see behaviours that might be hard to see otherwise.
Disadvantage: answers may not be truthful, therefore inadmissible.
Contingent relationship - Answers Presentation of one stimulus reliably leads to presentation of
another.
