Research Methodology and Descriptive Statistics
,Unit 1
Babbie Ch. 1 p. 3-13
How do we know things? We know most things as a product of agreement and belief. For
instance, the Earth is round. You've never seen it with your eyes to test it but, you agree. And this
is good, as learning every single thing in life by personal experience would be too consuming !
But, we do learn some things through direct experience - through observation. When there is
conflict between the two (agreement and personal experience) there is more chance of us leaning
in favor of agreement.
How we keep looking for Reality:
1. Knowledge from agreement: Scientists need a certain criteria met before accepting
something they have never personally experienced, and that is - logical (must make
sense) and empirical (must not contradict actual observation). They accept an
agreement reality. Epistemology is the science of knowing while Methodology is
the science of finding out. For example, the dark side of the moon is cold. There is
no sun shining on that side, so, it is logical it would be cold.
2. Ordinary Human Inquiry: Each of us has a desire to predict the future. We use
causal and probabilistic reasoning. Causal reasoning is what we do in the present
that affects our future (Studying a lot now, helps us to get good grades in the
future). Probabilistic is probability (Just cause we study does not mean we are
guaranteed to score a high mark). We can predict better by understanding and
using the context of knowledge.
3. Tradition: Each of us inherently has a firmly accepted knowledge of the world by
the culture that shapes us. Knowledge is cumulative and hence, we do not need to
start from scratch regarding everything. You learn from your parents that snakes
are dangerous.
4. Authority: Acceptance of new knowledge depends on the status of the discoverer.
We are more likely to trust a professional who has credentials and expertise to
show.
It is possible however, even for them to make errors and mistakes.
Errors in Inquiry can be caused by:
1. Inaccurate observations: Hence why, scientific inquiry uses conscious
observation and even measurement devices.
, 2. Overgeneralization: Scientists guard against this by taking a large number of
observations. Replication is another way to safeguard from this.
3. Selective Observation: Overgeneralization leads to selective observation.
Scientists safeguard from this by searching out deviant cases, which do not fit the
general pattern.
4. Illogical Reasoning: There are many illogical reasoning such as “The exception
that proves the rule” or “the gambler’s fallacy”.
The foundation for social science is logic (must make sense) and observation (correspond
with what we observe), and these two relate with the three major aspects - Theory (logic), Data
collection (data collection), and Data analysis (comparing logic and data collection).
Theory is a systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life.
Social science is to do with how things are and why.
Scientific theory cannot settle debates on value. Firstly a measurable definition is to be
made. For example, in a race, are the runners assessed based on their fastest speed? The time they
complete the race? How long can they run? Social Science can tell us what is and why, not what
ought to be.
Social Regularities: Social science aims to find patterns in life. However three objections
are raised in relation to this - some regularities may seem trivial (Republicans vote for
Republicans), contradictory cases may exist (Some laborers may make more money than some
professors), and the regularity people could upset everything if they wanted to. The obvious may
sometimes turn out to be false. Exceptions do not mean the regularities are unimportant. They are
probabilistic patterns And while the conscious will of some actors could affect the social
regularity, this does not happen all too often.
Aggregates not Individuals: Social scientists primarily study social patterns as opposed
to individual cases. These patterns relate to aggregate and collective cases.
Micro Lectures:
The Empirical Cycle:
Empirical Research is systematically (excluding the possibility that others answers given
are better than ours) answering a research question. Empirical relates to things we can observe.
The procedure is : Theory - Research design - Data collection - Data Analysis (Thinking -
Planning - Observing - Analyzing).
, For instance: You think you are not able to sleep cause you use your phone just before
sleeping (theory) - You test whether you are able to sleep better when using your phone or
stopping using your phone 1 hour before sleeping (research design) - You observe for a week
alternating between using and not using phone and checking if you slept well (data collection) -
And you check the data collected to find yes, you did sleep better when you stopped using your
phone 1 hour before (data analysis).
A question leads to you having a theory, which leads to you designing a research, and
collecting data to then analyze it. All these finally give you your answer/solution.
Starting with a general theory and going forward to find a specific answer is Deduction; while
Induction is moving from specific observed data to a more general theory. The Wheel of Science
can be used in any order as long as you can defend your logic.
Empirical Research Design in the context of decision making and design:
Empirical research questions are those that can only be answered by observation. These questions
are often asked in the context of decision making. The decision making cycle consists of:
Problem and Need analysis - Find and design options - Ex-ante options evaluation - Choice -
Implementation - Ex-post choice evaluation.
Empirical research questions can be Explanatory or Descriptive. For example, an Explanatory
question would be “Why do people smoke?”, while a Descriptive question would be “How many
people smoke?”
Confirmation Bias
It is also called Cherry picking Bias and Myside bias.
It is defined as “Search for, analyze and recall information in a way that confirms preexisting
beliefs, while giving disproportionately less consideration to alternative interpretations.”
This basically describes people who look and think of information that accepts their already
existing thoughts but not considering differing ideas.
For instance, a person reads and shares studies and images of the Earth being flat while ignoring
or dismissing information about it being round.
There are 3 types of confirmation bias: Bias in acquisition of information, Bias in Reasoning, and
Bias in conclusions.
There are many examples in differing fields, for instance the Pearl Harbor incident (politics),
groups think (business), and Psychology (halo and horn effects).
,Unit 1
Babbie Ch. 1 p. 3-13
How do we know things? We know most things as a product of agreement and belief. For
instance, the Earth is round. You've never seen it with your eyes to test it but, you agree. And this
is good, as learning every single thing in life by personal experience would be too consuming !
But, we do learn some things through direct experience - through observation. When there is
conflict between the two (agreement and personal experience) there is more chance of us leaning
in favor of agreement.
How we keep looking for Reality:
1. Knowledge from agreement: Scientists need a certain criteria met before accepting
something they have never personally experienced, and that is - logical (must make
sense) and empirical (must not contradict actual observation). They accept an
agreement reality. Epistemology is the science of knowing while Methodology is
the science of finding out. For example, the dark side of the moon is cold. There is
no sun shining on that side, so, it is logical it would be cold.
2. Ordinary Human Inquiry: Each of us has a desire to predict the future. We use
causal and probabilistic reasoning. Causal reasoning is what we do in the present
that affects our future (Studying a lot now, helps us to get good grades in the
future). Probabilistic is probability (Just cause we study does not mean we are
guaranteed to score a high mark). We can predict better by understanding and
using the context of knowledge.
3. Tradition: Each of us inherently has a firmly accepted knowledge of the world by
the culture that shapes us. Knowledge is cumulative and hence, we do not need to
start from scratch regarding everything. You learn from your parents that snakes
are dangerous.
4. Authority: Acceptance of new knowledge depends on the status of the discoverer.
We are more likely to trust a professional who has credentials and expertise to
show.
It is possible however, even for them to make errors and mistakes.
Errors in Inquiry can be caused by:
1. Inaccurate observations: Hence why, scientific inquiry uses conscious
observation and even measurement devices.
, 2. Overgeneralization: Scientists guard against this by taking a large number of
observations. Replication is another way to safeguard from this.
3. Selective Observation: Overgeneralization leads to selective observation.
Scientists safeguard from this by searching out deviant cases, which do not fit the
general pattern.
4. Illogical Reasoning: There are many illogical reasoning such as “The exception
that proves the rule” or “the gambler’s fallacy”.
The foundation for social science is logic (must make sense) and observation (correspond
with what we observe), and these two relate with the three major aspects - Theory (logic), Data
collection (data collection), and Data analysis (comparing logic and data collection).
Theory is a systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life.
Social science is to do with how things are and why.
Scientific theory cannot settle debates on value. Firstly a measurable definition is to be
made. For example, in a race, are the runners assessed based on their fastest speed? The time they
complete the race? How long can they run? Social Science can tell us what is and why, not what
ought to be.
Social Regularities: Social science aims to find patterns in life. However three objections
are raised in relation to this - some regularities may seem trivial (Republicans vote for
Republicans), contradictory cases may exist (Some laborers may make more money than some
professors), and the regularity people could upset everything if they wanted to. The obvious may
sometimes turn out to be false. Exceptions do not mean the regularities are unimportant. They are
probabilistic patterns And while the conscious will of some actors could affect the social
regularity, this does not happen all too often.
Aggregates not Individuals: Social scientists primarily study social patterns as opposed
to individual cases. These patterns relate to aggregate and collective cases.
Micro Lectures:
The Empirical Cycle:
Empirical Research is systematically (excluding the possibility that others answers given
are better than ours) answering a research question. Empirical relates to things we can observe.
The procedure is : Theory - Research design - Data collection - Data Analysis (Thinking -
Planning - Observing - Analyzing).
, For instance: You think you are not able to sleep cause you use your phone just before
sleeping (theory) - You test whether you are able to sleep better when using your phone or
stopping using your phone 1 hour before sleeping (research design) - You observe for a week
alternating between using and not using phone and checking if you slept well (data collection) -
And you check the data collected to find yes, you did sleep better when you stopped using your
phone 1 hour before (data analysis).
A question leads to you having a theory, which leads to you designing a research, and
collecting data to then analyze it. All these finally give you your answer/solution.
Starting with a general theory and going forward to find a specific answer is Deduction; while
Induction is moving from specific observed data to a more general theory. The Wheel of Science
can be used in any order as long as you can defend your logic.
Empirical Research Design in the context of decision making and design:
Empirical research questions are those that can only be answered by observation. These questions
are often asked in the context of decision making. The decision making cycle consists of:
Problem and Need analysis - Find and design options - Ex-ante options evaluation - Choice -
Implementation - Ex-post choice evaluation.
Empirical research questions can be Explanatory or Descriptive. For example, an Explanatory
question would be “Why do people smoke?”, while a Descriptive question would be “How many
people smoke?”
Confirmation Bias
It is also called Cherry picking Bias and Myside bias.
It is defined as “Search for, analyze and recall information in a way that confirms preexisting
beliefs, while giving disproportionately less consideration to alternative interpretations.”
This basically describes people who look and think of information that accepts their already
existing thoughts but not considering differing ideas.
For instance, a person reads and shares studies and images of the Earth being flat while ignoring
or dismissing information about it being round.
There are 3 types of confirmation bias: Bias in acquisition of information, Bias in Reasoning, and
Bias in conclusions.
There are many examples in differing fields, for instance the Pearl Harbor incident (politics),
groups think (business), and Psychology (halo and horn effects).
