Table of Contents
PART I: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 4
SECTION 1: EUROPEAN CRIMINAL LAW DOES NOT EXIST?............................................................. 4
§1. Key gaps in the European criminal justice framework ........................................................... 4
§2. Reasons for the lack of a unified system ............................................................................... 4
§3. Challenges to transferring criminal justice to the EU level .................................................... 4
SECTION 2: DRIVING FORCES BEHING THE ‘EUROPEANISATION’ OF CRIMINAL LAW AND
CRIMINAL JUSTICE ......................................................................................................................... 5
SECTION 3: PRE- AND POST-LISBON .............................................................................................. 5
§1. Chronology of the ECL-course until 2010 .............................................................................. 5
§2. The new world after Lisbon ................................................................................................... 6
PART II: HISTORY AND SOURCES ................................................................................................... 7
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 7
SECTION 2: THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE .......................................................................................... 7
§1. Membership .......................................................................................................................... 7
§2. Goals ..................................................................................................................................... 8
§3. European Convention and Court of Human Rights ................................................................ 8
§4. Interstate cooperation CoE ................................................................................................. 12
SECTION 3: THE EUROPEAN UNION ..............................................................................................13
§1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 13
§2. History ................................................................................................................................ 14
§3. Impact of European Community law on Member States criminal law (1958-2009) .............. 15
§4. Intergovernmental cooperation alongside the Community: the Schengen-regime ............. 23
§5. Maastricht: the EU as a ‘common roof’................................................................................ 28
§6. Maastricht follow-up ........................................................................................................... 29
§7. Conclusion: history European (Union) Treaties ................................................................... 49
SECTION 4: INTERRELATION ECHR – COE – EU ..............................................................................50
§1. Interplay EU-ECHR-law as it was in 1997 ............................................................................. 50
§2. Lisbon Treaty: accession EU to ECHR .................................................................................. 51
§3. Cold water thrown on accession by CJEU (2014).................................................................. 52
§4. Case-law can make legislation superfluous ........................................................................ 52
§5. Quid Brexit?......................................................................................................................... 53
PART III: SUBSTANTIVE CRIMINAL LAW ......................................................................................... 54
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................54
SECTION 2: SWORD FUNCTION: OBLIGATION TO INCRIMINATE AND TO PUNISH .........................54
§1. ECHR ................................................................................................................................... 54
§2. Conventions CoE................................................................................................................. 64
§3. EU-induced criminalisation................................................................................................. 65
SECTION 3: SHIELD FUNCTION: INVOKING EUROPEAN LAW AS A DEFENCE AGAINST NATIONAL
CRIMINAL LAW ..............................................................................................................................65
1
, §1. Diferences in national criminal law.................................................................................... 65
§2. Services in the EU: criminal in one, legal in another ............................................................ 66
SECTION 4: OTHER SUBSTANTIVE LAW ISSUES .............................................................................72
§1. Perpetrators ........................................................................................................................ 72
§2. Legal persons ...................................................................................................................... 76
§3. Accomplice liability ............................................................................................................ 79
§4. Attempt ............................................................................................................................... 80
§5. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 80
PART IV: INVESTIGATION PHASE ................................................................................................... 83
SECTION 1: COMPETENT AUTHORITIES.........................................................................................83
§1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 83
§2. Pre-history .......................................................................................................................... 84
§3. Institutions and organisations............................................................................................. 85
SECTION 2: OBLIGATION TO INVESTIGATE AND COOPERATE ...................................................... 104
§1. Positive Human Rights-obligation to investigate and cooperate ....................................... 104
§3. Mutual assistance: Council of Europe ............................................................................... 106
§4. EU: need for swifter crossborder investigations ................................................................ 113
§5. EU and CoE: Joint Investigation Teams .............................................................................. 116
§6. E-evidence: direct pan-EU data production orders (details infra) ...................................... 116
§7. Which state(s) will prosecute? .......................................................................................... 117
SECTION 3: SEARCH ACTIONS .................................................................................................... 117
§1. Questioning of suspects ................................................................................................... 117
§2. House search .................................................................................................................... 156
§3. Wiretaps (and contemporary interception of communications) ........................................ 158
§4. DNA-testing ....................................................................................................................... 163
§5. (Covert) observation .......................................................................................................... 166
§6. Infiltration (undercover agents) ......................................................................................... 172
§7. Seizure and asset freezing................................................................................................. 175
§8. Electronic evidence (E-evidence) ...................................................................................... 176
PART V: ARREST, DETENTION ON REMAND, EXTRADITION AND EAW............................................. 208
SECTION 1: ARREST AND DETENTION ON REMAND..................................................................... 208
§1. Arrests and Detention in the light of Art. 5 ECHR (Right to Liberty and Security) ................ 208
§2. Crucial questions when there is interference with liberty ................................................. 209
§3. Framework Decision 2009 ................................................................................................. 211
SECTION 2: EXTRADITION AND SURRENDER ............................................................................... 213
§1. General ............................................................................................................................. 213
§2. CoE European Convention on Extradition.......................................................................... 213
§3. ECHR limits to extradition ................................................................................................. 215
§4. European Union................................................................................................................. 219
PART V: EVIDENCE (LIMITS IN USING EVIDENCE) ......................................................................... 239
SECTION 1: VIOLATION OF (NATIONAL LAW OR) ECHR/CRFEU.................................................... 239
SECTION 2: CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION IN THE EU .............................................................. 243
SECTION 3: STRASBOURG V LUXEMBOURG ................................................................................ 243
2
, SECTION 4: EIO AND ILLEGAL EVIDENCE .................................................................................... 245
PART VI: CRIMINAL SANCTIONS ................................................................................................. 246
SECTION 1: QUALITY OF CRIMINAL SANCTIONS ......................................................................... 246
SECTION 2: INSUFFICENT PUNISHMENT AS A VIOLATION OF THE RIGHTS OF THE VICTIMS ....... 246
SECTION 3: PROPORTIONALITY .................................................................................................. 246
SECTION 4: UNDESIRABLE PERSONS .......................................................................................... 247
PART VII: CHANGES IN LEGISLATION – LEGALITY PRINCIPLE IN CRIMINAL LAW ............................ 248
PART VIII: OBSTACLES TO THE NORMAL COURSE OF CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS ............................ 250
SECTION 1: NE (NON) BIS IN IDEM ............................................................................................... 250
SECTION 2: PRESCRIPTION (STATUTES OF LIMITATIONS) ............................................................ 252
3
, PART I: INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1: EUROPEAN CRIMINAL LAW DOES NOT EXIST?
For many years people said that European criminal law did not exist. It had to do with the
comptences of the European institutions and Member States were reluctant to hand over
criminal law powers to these institutions.
§1. Key gaps in the European criminal justice framework
No European criminal code
- Many countries have a criminal code or legislation statute law which defines the
crimes and sanctions, but no such things exists at European level.
No European code of criminal procedure
No European criminal courts
- The debate is starting now whether there should be.
No European prosecutors
- Until 2020 (when EPPO started) there were no European prosecutors. This does
not mean that European law was no enforced, but it was done by national
prosecutors.
No European juries
No European prisons
§2. Reasons for the lack of a unified system
The reason why none of the above exists is national sovereignty. Though States have been
giving more and more power to the EU level, criminal law is still linked to sovereignty for
historical reasons: most of Europe was occupied by Nazi Germany and the idea of the
German police knocking on doors, searching houses and arresting people was quite
traumatic. Thus, the idea of police acting across borders was quite controversial.
ð DiSerence with the US: each state has its own justice system in the US + there is a
federal justice system (which does not need to respect the local law)
o ó there is no federal system in the EU
§3. Challenges to transferring criminal justice to the EU level
In the many transfers of sovereignty to the higher levels, criminal law was among the last
in the queue (together with foreign policy).
Legitimacy is also a factor: the national authorities have some legitimacy, because the
people in the Member States have voted for them. Europe lacked this legitimacy for a long
time.
4
PART I: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 4
SECTION 1: EUROPEAN CRIMINAL LAW DOES NOT EXIST?............................................................. 4
§1. Key gaps in the European criminal justice framework ........................................................... 4
§2. Reasons for the lack of a unified system ............................................................................... 4
§3. Challenges to transferring criminal justice to the EU level .................................................... 4
SECTION 2: DRIVING FORCES BEHING THE ‘EUROPEANISATION’ OF CRIMINAL LAW AND
CRIMINAL JUSTICE ......................................................................................................................... 5
SECTION 3: PRE- AND POST-LISBON .............................................................................................. 5
§1. Chronology of the ECL-course until 2010 .............................................................................. 5
§2. The new world after Lisbon ................................................................................................... 6
PART II: HISTORY AND SOURCES ................................................................................................... 7
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 7
SECTION 2: THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE .......................................................................................... 7
§1. Membership .......................................................................................................................... 7
§2. Goals ..................................................................................................................................... 8
§3. European Convention and Court of Human Rights ................................................................ 8
§4. Interstate cooperation CoE ................................................................................................. 12
SECTION 3: THE EUROPEAN UNION ..............................................................................................13
§1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 13
§2. History ................................................................................................................................ 14
§3. Impact of European Community law on Member States criminal law (1958-2009) .............. 15
§4. Intergovernmental cooperation alongside the Community: the Schengen-regime ............. 23
§5. Maastricht: the EU as a ‘common roof’................................................................................ 28
§6. Maastricht follow-up ........................................................................................................... 29
§7. Conclusion: history European (Union) Treaties ................................................................... 49
SECTION 4: INTERRELATION ECHR – COE – EU ..............................................................................50
§1. Interplay EU-ECHR-law as it was in 1997 ............................................................................. 50
§2. Lisbon Treaty: accession EU to ECHR .................................................................................. 51
§3. Cold water thrown on accession by CJEU (2014).................................................................. 52
§4. Case-law can make legislation superfluous ........................................................................ 52
§5. Quid Brexit?......................................................................................................................... 53
PART III: SUBSTANTIVE CRIMINAL LAW ......................................................................................... 54
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................54
SECTION 2: SWORD FUNCTION: OBLIGATION TO INCRIMINATE AND TO PUNISH .........................54
§1. ECHR ................................................................................................................................... 54
§2. Conventions CoE................................................................................................................. 64
§3. EU-induced criminalisation................................................................................................. 65
SECTION 3: SHIELD FUNCTION: INVOKING EUROPEAN LAW AS A DEFENCE AGAINST NATIONAL
CRIMINAL LAW ..............................................................................................................................65
1
, §1. Diferences in national criminal law.................................................................................... 65
§2. Services in the EU: criminal in one, legal in another ............................................................ 66
SECTION 4: OTHER SUBSTANTIVE LAW ISSUES .............................................................................72
§1. Perpetrators ........................................................................................................................ 72
§2. Legal persons ...................................................................................................................... 76
§3. Accomplice liability ............................................................................................................ 79
§4. Attempt ............................................................................................................................... 80
§5. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 80
PART IV: INVESTIGATION PHASE ................................................................................................... 83
SECTION 1: COMPETENT AUTHORITIES.........................................................................................83
§1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 83
§2. Pre-history .......................................................................................................................... 84
§3. Institutions and organisations............................................................................................. 85
SECTION 2: OBLIGATION TO INVESTIGATE AND COOPERATE ...................................................... 104
§1. Positive Human Rights-obligation to investigate and cooperate ....................................... 104
§3. Mutual assistance: Council of Europe ............................................................................... 106
§4. EU: need for swifter crossborder investigations ................................................................ 113
§5. EU and CoE: Joint Investigation Teams .............................................................................. 116
§6. E-evidence: direct pan-EU data production orders (details infra) ...................................... 116
§7. Which state(s) will prosecute? .......................................................................................... 117
SECTION 3: SEARCH ACTIONS .................................................................................................... 117
§1. Questioning of suspects ................................................................................................... 117
§2. House search .................................................................................................................... 156
§3. Wiretaps (and contemporary interception of communications) ........................................ 158
§4. DNA-testing ....................................................................................................................... 163
§5. (Covert) observation .......................................................................................................... 166
§6. Infiltration (undercover agents) ......................................................................................... 172
§7. Seizure and asset freezing................................................................................................. 175
§8. Electronic evidence (E-evidence) ...................................................................................... 176
PART V: ARREST, DETENTION ON REMAND, EXTRADITION AND EAW............................................. 208
SECTION 1: ARREST AND DETENTION ON REMAND..................................................................... 208
§1. Arrests and Detention in the light of Art. 5 ECHR (Right to Liberty and Security) ................ 208
§2. Crucial questions when there is interference with liberty ................................................. 209
§3. Framework Decision 2009 ................................................................................................. 211
SECTION 2: EXTRADITION AND SURRENDER ............................................................................... 213
§1. General ............................................................................................................................. 213
§2. CoE European Convention on Extradition.......................................................................... 213
§3. ECHR limits to extradition ................................................................................................. 215
§4. European Union................................................................................................................. 219
PART V: EVIDENCE (LIMITS IN USING EVIDENCE) ......................................................................... 239
SECTION 1: VIOLATION OF (NATIONAL LAW OR) ECHR/CRFEU.................................................... 239
SECTION 2: CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION IN THE EU .............................................................. 243
SECTION 3: STRASBOURG V LUXEMBOURG ................................................................................ 243
2
, SECTION 4: EIO AND ILLEGAL EVIDENCE .................................................................................... 245
PART VI: CRIMINAL SANCTIONS ................................................................................................. 246
SECTION 1: QUALITY OF CRIMINAL SANCTIONS ......................................................................... 246
SECTION 2: INSUFFICENT PUNISHMENT AS A VIOLATION OF THE RIGHTS OF THE VICTIMS ....... 246
SECTION 3: PROPORTIONALITY .................................................................................................. 246
SECTION 4: UNDESIRABLE PERSONS .......................................................................................... 247
PART VII: CHANGES IN LEGISLATION – LEGALITY PRINCIPLE IN CRIMINAL LAW ............................ 248
PART VIII: OBSTACLES TO THE NORMAL COURSE OF CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS ............................ 250
SECTION 1: NE (NON) BIS IN IDEM ............................................................................................... 250
SECTION 2: PRESCRIPTION (STATUTES OF LIMITATIONS) ............................................................ 252
3
, PART I: INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1: EUROPEAN CRIMINAL LAW DOES NOT EXIST?
For many years people said that European criminal law did not exist. It had to do with the
comptences of the European institutions and Member States were reluctant to hand over
criminal law powers to these institutions.
§1. Key gaps in the European criminal justice framework
No European criminal code
- Many countries have a criminal code or legislation statute law which defines the
crimes and sanctions, but no such things exists at European level.
No European code of criminal procedure
No European criminal courts
- The debate is starting now whether there should be.
No European prosecutors
- Until 2020 (when EPPO started) there were no European prosecutors. This does
not mean that European law was no enforced, but it was done by national
prosecutors.
No European juries
No European prisons
§2. Reasons for the lack of a unified system
The reason why none of the above exists is national sovereignty. Though States have been
giving more and more power to the EU level, criminal law is still linked to sovereignty for
historical reasons: most of Europe was occupied by Nazi Germany and the idea of the
German police knocking on doors, searching houses and arresting people was quite
traumatic. Thus, the idea of police acting across borders was quite controversial.
ð DiSerence with the US: each state has its own justice system in the US + there is a
federal justice system (which does not need to respect the local law)
o ó there is no federal system in the EU
§3. Challenges to transferring criminal justice to the EU level
In the many transfers of sovereignty to the higher levels, criminal law was among the last
in the queue (together with foreign policy).
Legitimacy is also a factor: the national authorities have some legitimacy, because the
people in the Member States have voted for them. Europe lacked this legitimacy for a long
time.
4
