Les 1: Introduction
Some initial observations about Diplomacy
- Kralev: ‘Diplomacy seldom produces quick results, and its victories are
rarely celebrated.’
- Kissingen: ‘Diplomacy is the patient accumulation of partial successes’
Example: Trade Agreement 2005 US x Dominican Republic
US were making a deal agreement with Middle-American countries (CAFTA), but
in DR a major bank collapsed, causing a bank run and crisis. DR couldn’t take the
risk of opening up their markets to the US, they first had to fix their economy and
management.
Diplomats initiated technical trade negotiations between International Monetary
Fund (IMF), DR and US, which eventually caused a trade agreement to be made
(CAFTA-DR): Reduction in tariffs and overcame administrative burdens
Diplomacy as the ‘Machinery of IR’
- Daily Operations:
o Diplomacy facilitates wide range of bilateral & multilateral relations:
Transport of goods;
Conflict resolution;
Visa arrangement.
- Protocols:
o guide formal interactions between states, ensuring respect for
sovereignty & smooth communication
- Diplomacy as a framework
o States manage their interactions, ensuring a structured approach to
global affairs via diplomacy;
o These activities are embedded in large bureaucratic structures
Ministries of Foreign Affairs
Embassies
Berridge (2022)
‘Together with the balance of power (1), which it both reflects and reinforces (2),
diplomacy is the most important institution of our society of states.(3)’
1. Balance of Power: (Distribution of economic, military & political
capabilities in the international system)
a. Relations of power between actors and their (in)ability to influence
one another.
b. Not strictly related to military force
c. Balance vs distribution
i. Balance: a less neutral term. It pre-determines an outcome
(balance). There is an equilibrium
ii. Distribution: doesn’t need to have an outcome/equilibrium.
2. Reflects and reinforces
a. Reflect:
i. Diplomatic engagement of a state mirrors its position in the
global hierarchy.
ii. Your place in the international system will influence your
position. Diplomacy will (at the start) reflect the distribution of
power.
, iii. EG. If the US and Mozambique would have negotiations, the
US is more powerful due to their nationality and the power of
their respective nation.
b. Reinforces:
i. Through alliances, negotiations and strategic actions,
diplomacy maintain or shift the balance to preserve stability
or national advantage
ii. Trying to formalise its position of power an agreement
gives stability to your position.
iii. Getting more economical benefits
iv. Matthew effect: Those who begin with an advantage,
accumulate more advantage overtime. While those who begin
with a disadvantage.
3. Society of states:
a. Power-based system:
i. Is defined as stronger countries dominating negotiations, due
to their economic, military & geopolitical clout (often
marginalize weaker states) diplomacy is asymmetrical
b. Rule-based system:
i. Is based on international norms & agreements that protect
smaller or less powerful countries Diplomacy seeks
equality & justice between states.
c. Diplomats often work in environments that have rules: has a big
impact on negotiations (explains why many diplomats have a law
background!)
d. Keep in mind: Power determines the rules!
National interest
Protecting, serving and promoting the national interest:
- Who defines it? Who is entitled to define it and why?
o Every government has the right to determine it, which means it can
differ between governments and be influenced by ideology
- Difference between long and short term interests (national vs minister)
- What is the role of diplomats in defining it?
o Provide advice to leaders on international affairs & strategies.
- Core national interest
o State survival
Takes instructions from ministers. Even when he disagrees, he
carries out the policy set by the administration
State’s sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence are
non-negotiable
o Prosperity of one’s country and inhabitants
Ensuring economic growth, job creation, improved living
standards
o Equitable prosperity in one’s country
Addressing internal inequalities and ensure social cohesion
o Preservation (/promotion) of one’s country’s values
Nation’s values (political, cultural or ideological) strengthen
its identity and guide its domestic- and foreign policy.
o These are states immediate survival and foundational needs
which are non-negotiable
- Extended national interest
o Stability abroad
Stable international environment prevent spillover crises
, o Prosperity abroad
Creating favourable conditions for trade, investment.
o Political survival of the country’s regime
o Political survival of the country’s leaders and/or ruling classes.
o Solution for the “Global Commons” that affect one’s country.
Strategic goals that enhance a states global standing, but are
less urgent and can be compromised on. These issues are
significant, but often lack immediacy and direct impact on the
states well-being.
National security and FP
- National security: The provision, protection and defence of the security of a
country and its people contains domestic and foreign policy instruments
- Foreign Policy: set of policies aimed at countering external threats,
furthering interest and taking advantage of opportunities.
o Tools are traditional diplomacy, intelligence and the use of force.
o More modern tools: technology, science etc.
o Diplomacy is a tool of Foreign Policy, it does not equal FP
- Not all components receive equal resources.
Role of diplomats: executors of FP
- Provide advice to leaders on international affairs and strategies
- Mediator & communicator between his country & other states /
organizations
o Credibility and good network are important
- Handle sensitive issues requiring discretion and tactics (international
crises)
What is diplomacy?
‘Diplomacy is essentially political activity, and well-resourced and skilful, a major
ingredient of power. It can enable states to secure objectives of FP, without force,
propaganda or law. Achieves this mainly by communication between professional
diplomats and other officials designed to secure agreement.
- Diplomacy as Political activity
o Strategic interactions
A tool for navigating global power dynamics where states
strive to protect their interests & secure agreements
Involves states using negotiation & communications to
achieve their Foreign Policy goals
o Diplomacy as inherently political
- Well-resourced and skilful
o Diplomacy is dependent on resources (not just financial)
Lack of resources can hinder a country’s ability to project
power & influence in global affairs
o Diplomacy is dependent on skills & experience
Importance of organizing trainings, internships and to invest
in the development of a diplomatic corps
This requires time and support from well-resourced
institutions
- Achieving Foreign Policy objectives
Some initial observations about Diplomacy
- Kralev: ‘Diplomacy seldom produces quick results, and its victories are
rarely celebrated.’
- Kissingen: ‘Diplomacy is the patient accumulation of partial successes’
Example: Trade Agreement 2005 US x Dominican Republic
US were making a deal agreement with Middle-American countries (CAFTA), but
in DR a major bank collapsed, causing a bank run and crisis. DR couldn’t take the
risk of opening up their markets to the US, they first had to fix their economy and
management.
Diplomats initiated technical trade negotiations between International Monetary
Fund (IMF), DR and US, which eventually caused a trade agreement to be made
(CAFTA-DR): Reduction in tariffs and overcame administrative burdens
Diplomacy as the ‘Machinery of IR’
- Daily Operations:
o Diplomacy facilitates wide range of bilateral & multilateral relations:
Transport of goods;
Conflict resolution;
Visa arrangement.
- Protocols:
o guide formal interactions between states, ensuring respect for
sovereignty & smooth communication
- Diplomacy as a framework
o States manage their interactions, ensuring a structured approach to
global affairs via diplomacy;
o These activities are embedded in large bureaucratic structures
Ministries of Foreign Affairs
Embassies
Berridge (2022)
‘Together with the balance of power (1), which it both reflects and reinforces (2),
diplomacy is the most important institution of our society of states.(3)’
1. Balance of Power: (Distribution of economic, military & political
capabilities in the international system)
a. Relations of power between actors and their (in)ability to influence
one another.
b. Not strictly related to military force
c. Balance vs distribution
i. Balance: a less neutral term. It pre-determines an outcome
(balance). There is an equilibrium
ii. Distribution: doesn’t need to have an outcome/equilibrium.
2. Reflects and reinforces
a. Reflect:
i. Diplomatic engagement of a state mirrors its position in the
global hierarchy.
ii. Your place in the international system will influence your
position. Diplomacy will (at the start) reflect the distribution of
power.
, iii. EG. If the US and Mozambique would have negotiations, the
US is more powerful due to their nationality and the power of
their respective nation.
b. Reinforces:
i. Through alliances, negotiations and strategic actions,
diplomacy maintain or shift the balance to preserve stability
or national advantage
ii. Trying to formalise its position of power an agreement
gives stability to your position.
iii. Getting more economical benefits
iv. Matthew effect: Those who begin with an advantage,
accumulate more advantage overtime. While those who begin
with a disadvantage.
3. Society of states:
a. Power-based system:
i. Is defined as stronger countries dominating negotiations, due
to their economic, military & geopolitical clout (often
marginalize weaker states) diplomacy is asymmetrical
b. Rule-based system:
i. Is based on international norms & agreements that protect
smaller or less powerful countries Diplomacy seeks
equality & justice between states.
c. Diplomats often work in environments that have rules: has a big
impact on negotiations (explains why many diplomats have a law
background!)
d. Keep in mind: Power determines the rules!
National interest
Protecting, serving and promoting the national interest:
- Who defines it? Who is entitled to define it and why?
o Every government has the right to determine it, which means it can
differ between governments and be influenced by ideology
- Difference between long and short term interests (national vs minister)
- What is the role of diplomats in defining it?
o Provide advice to leaders on international affairs & strategies.
- Core national interest
o State survival
Takes instructions from ministers. Even when he disagrees, he
carries out the policy set by the administration
State’s sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence are
non-negotiable
o Prosperity of one’s country and inhabitants
Ensuring economic growth, job creation, improved living
standards
o Equitable prosperity in one’s country
Addressing internal inequalities and ensure social cohesion
o Preservation (/promotion) of one’s country’s values
Nation’s values (political, cultural or ideological) strengthen
its identity and guide its domestic- and foreign policy.
o These are states immediate survival and foundational needs
which are non-negotiable
- Extended national interest
o Stability abroad
Stable international environment prevent spillover crises
, o Prosperity abroad
Creating favourable conditions for trade, investment.
o Political survival of the country’s regime
o Political survival of the country’s leaders and/or ruling classes.
o Solution for the “Global Commons” that affect one’s country.
Strategic goals that enhance a states global standing, but are
less urgent and can be compromised on. These issues are
significant, but often lack immediacy and direct impact on the
states well-being.
National security and FP
- National security: The provision, protection and defence of the security of a
country and its people contains domestic and foreign policy instruments
- Foreign Policy: set of policies aimed at countering external threats,
furthering interest and taking advantage of opportunities.
o Tools are traditional diplomacy, intelligence and the use of force.
o More modern tools: technology, science etc.
o Diplomacy is a tool of Foreign Policy, it does not equal FP
- Not all components receive equal resources.
Role of diplomats: executors of FP
- Provide advice to leaders on international affairs and strategies
- Mediator & communicator between his country & other states /
organizations
o Credibility and good network are important
- Handle sensitive issues requiring discretion and tactics (international
crises)
What is diplomacy?
‘Diplomacy is essentially political activity, and well-resourced and skilful, a major
ingredient of power. It can enable states to secure objectives of FP, without force,
propaganda or law. Achieves this mainly by communication between professional
diplomats and other officials designed to secure agreement.
- Diplomacy as Political activity
o Strategic interactions
A tool for navigating global power dynamics where states
strive to protect their interests & secure agreements
Involves states using negotiation & communications to
achieve their Foreign Policy goals
o Diplomacy as inherently political
- Well-resourced and skilful
o Diplomacy is dependent on resources (not just financial)
Lack of resources can hinder a country’s ability to project
power & influence in global affairs
o Diplomacy is dependent on skills & experience
Importance of organizing trainings, internships and to invest
in the development of a diplomatic corps
This requires time and support from well-resourced
institutions
- Achieving Foreign Policy objectives
