Chapter 1: Questions
1.1 The sociological perspective
Individual perspective: type of explanation of human behavior which focuses on individual
causes. The perspective taken by sociologists is to understand the behavior of persons by
considering their social context. Social contexts change and sociologists study the human
consequences of such changes.
Social imagination, also sociological perspective, identifies social causes as opposed to
individual causes. It also considers collective outcomes. Sociologists do not try to
understand the behavior of each individual, but to examine social phenomena. The aim is
to understand how human behavior typically results from shared contextual conditions and
how this results in collective outcomes. The sociological perspective supplements the
individual perspective. They are not in conflict, but together they provide a more extensive
explanation of human behavior. Individual perspectives often fall short, but if purely individual
causes underlie behavior then individual treatments would be highly effective.
Sociological and individual perspectives can be seen as alternative perspectives.
Sociologists need to recognize the importance of individual biological factors, but context
differences are hard to explain with individual factors. And social phenomena change over
time. If only individual perspective is used there would be no change over short periods of
time. If it strongly changes in a very short time the individual perspective can’t explain this
increase, because human nature did not change in such a short period. So, changing
societal conditions must have contributed.
Sociologists can argue that individual causes of human behavior are proximate causes
(factors that are close to the phenomena the researcher wants to explain) of behavior.
Ultimate causes (also distal causes) are factors that are ‘deeper’ and ‘hidden’ in the
background, and that underlie and explain proximate causes. In the case below, the ultimate
cause is that social contexts affect individual predispositions.
Ultimate cause → proximate cause → consequence
There is a difference in the scale or level of the social context. Example: a school context is
of small scale, but pupils are also citizens of a country and as such they share another social
context, although on a much larger scale and higher level. The micro level refers to the
lowest level, individuals. The meso level designates social conditions that individuals share
in their immediate environment (school, work, families, neighborhood, organization, etc.) The
macro level indicates the highest level that individuals share (countries, continents, world
regions). Social contexts can refer to meso- or macro level contexts. Sometimes sociologists
only use ‘micro’ and ‘macro’ (here macro = meso + macro).
1.2 Social problems
An important reason for sociologists to study certain topics is when there is a social
problem (also public issue). It’s commonly understood as a problem that:
, ★ goes beyond the individual
★ is an issue about which many people are concerned (in conflict with certain values)
Social problems are more severe: 1. the more people are affected and 2. the more strongly
the problems conflict with common values. Personal trouble is a problem related to the
personal life of an individual. However, the ‘problem’ might go beyond the individual and
indicate a social problem. Social problems fluctuate over time and differ across societies,
because the problems with which people are confronted equally change over time and
space. Also, mainstream values are not a universal constant but differ across time and
space. Therefore, what people consider a social problem depends on their values. Some
problems might only relate to e.g., one neighborhood or a specific “social category” such as
women or ethnic minorities, and may not be seen as a social problem by those not affected.
1.3 Three aims of sociology
The aim of sociologists is to come up with accurate
scientific descriptions and theoretical explanations for
social phenomena, and to apply their knowledge. The
three core aims: to describe, to explain and to apply.
When a problem is considered as a public issue,
government agencies develop policy measures and
interventions. They need to assess how large the
problem is, what causes it and which interventions are
effective. For this the work of sociologists is needed.
Social problems have a normative dimension: desirable
goals or values are threatened → people want to solve this problem → politicians, policy
makers and organizations offer various measures and interventions to do so. In sociology
social phenomena are studied: not as a normative problem but as a scientific phenomenon
of interest. Understanding social phenomena thereby contributes to understanding and
solving social problems.
Describe
To get a proper understanding of the nature of social problems, sociologists need to come up
with accurate descriptions of social phenomena, because people could uphold inaccurate
beliefs about it.
Explain
If politicians and policy makers want to solve social problems effectively, they need to know
what causes the problems. So, sociologists come up with explanations and subsequently
use empirical data to examine whether those explanations are true.
Apply
By applying and sharing sociological insights, they return to the normative domain: the public
concern of social problems. Sociological findings can be used for predictions, to provide
evidence to suggest that some social problems will disappear and others will become more
pressing. Sociologists also apply their knowledge to develop and evaluate social
interventions. Interventions are subject to scientific insights and empirical work and are
, targeted towards reducing social problems. When in a public debate there is a discussion
about what to do and policy makers are struggling finding appropriate measures, sociologists
can evaluate various proposed social interventions, as well as developing alternative ones.
They’ll inform social policy makers on if the outcomes are desired, how much the costs and
benefits will be, and if the policies will have other (possibly unintended) consequences.
When sociological work is carried out in view of current social problems that exist in society,
their work has so-called societal-relevance, so the scientific knowledge they produce in
light of social problems. Their contribution is:
1. Come up with accurate descriptions of social phenomena.
2. Dig deeper into the processes that underlie the phenomena (systematically construct
and test explanations leading to a better understanding of what causes them).
3. Apply the knowledge such that they give scientifically grounded predictions of what
will happen as well as developing and evaluating social interventions.
Sociologists fulfill the important role of informing the public debate and policy makers with
scientific knowledge. However, a full understanding of social problems also requires the work
of other scientists due to non-social factors.
1.4 Three types of sociological questions
Questions on social problems are typically formed as normative questions about what
“should be done”. When sociologists study social problems as social phenomena, scientific
aspects, instead of normative elements, are underlined. Answers on normative questions
can differ between people, depending on beliefs, goals, norms and values. They naturally
belong to politics, they are the core of public debate. Sociology is not a normative ideology:
we study the scientific aspects of social problems. So questions need to be targeted towards
social phenomena → scientific questions: 1. descriptive, 2. theoretical or 3. application.
You need to be clear about the underlying aim of the scientific question.
Descriptive questions
Concerned with describing social phenomena. To answer, sociologists observe (with all sorts
of scientific data) what is actually happening.
Theoretical questions
“Explanatory questions” targeted towards
understanding phenomena. The answers are
theories, which provide explanations for social
phenomena and from which hypotheses to test
those explanations derive. Later, the scientific
observations will show if the explanations are
confirmed by evidence or that the data suggests
that the explanations were wrong.
Application questions
Targeted towards applying scientific knowledge. The answers are sociological applications,
such as predictions and social interventions.
1.1 The sociological perspective
Individual perspective: type of explanation of human behavior which focuses on individual
causes. The perspective taken by sociologists is to understand the behavior of persons by
considering their social context. Social contexts change and sociologists study the human
consequences of such changes.
Social imagination, also sociological perspective, identifies social causes as opposed to
individual causes. It also considers collective outcomes. Sociologists do not try to
understand the behavior of each individual, but to examine social phenomena. The aim is
to understand how human behavior typically results from shared contextual conditions and
how this results in collective outcomes. The sociological perspective supplements the
individual perspective. They are not in conflict, but together they provide a more extensive
explanation of human behavior. Individual perspectives often fall short, but if purely individual
causes underlie behavior then individual treatments would be highly effective.
Sociological and individual perspectives can be seen as alternative perspectives.
Sociologists need to recognize the importance of individual biological factors, but context
differences are hard to explain with individual factors. And social phenomena change over
time. If only individual perspective is used there would be no change over short periods of
time. If it strongly changes in a very short time the individual perspective can’t explain this
increase, because human nature did not change in such a short period. So, changing
societal conditions must have contributed.
Sociologists can argue that individual causes of human behavior are proximate causes
(factors that are close to the phenomena the researcher wants to explain) of behavior.
Ultimate causes (also distal causes) are factors that are ‘deeper’ and ‘hidden’ in the
background, and that underlie and explain proximate causes. In the case below, the ultimate
cause is that social contexts affect individual predispositions.
Ultimate cause → proximate cause → consequence
There is a difference in the scale or level of the social context. Example: a school context is
of small scale, but pupils are also citizens of a country and as such they share another social
context, although on a much larger scale and higher level. The micro level refers to the
lowest level, individuals. The meso level designates social conditions that individuals share
in their immediate environment (school, work, families, neighborhood, organization, etc.) The
macro level indicates the highest level that individuals share (countries, continents, world
regions). Social contexts can refer to meso- or macro level contexts. Sometimes sociologists
only use ‘micro’ and ‘macro’ (here macro = meso + macro).
1.2 Social problems
An important reason for sociologists to study certain topics is when there is a social
problem (also public issue). It’s commonly understood as a problem that:
, ★ goes beyond the individual
★ is an issue about which many people are concerned (in conflict with certain values)
Social problems are more severe: 1. the more people are affected and 2. the more strongly
the problems conflict with common values. Personal trouble is a problem related to the
personal life of an individual. However, the ‘problem’ might go beyond the individual and
indicate a social problem. Social problems fluctuate over time and differ across societies,
because the problems with which people are confronted equally change over time and
space. Also, mainstream values are not a universal constant but differ across time and
space. Therefore, what people consider a social problem depends on their values. Some
problems might only relate to e.g., one neighborhood or a specific “social category” such as
women or ethnic minorities, and may not be seen as a social problem by those not affected.
1.3 Three aims of sociology
The aim of sociologists is to come up with accurate
scientific descriptions and theoretical explanations for
social phenomena, and to apply their knowledge. The
three core aims: to describe, to explain and to apply.
When a problem is considered as a public issue,
government agencies develop policy measures and
interventions. They need to assess how large the
problem is, what causes it and which interventions are
effective. For this the work of sociologists is needed.
Social problems have a normative dimension: desirable
goals or values are threatened → people want to solve this problem → politicians, policy
makers and organizations offer various measures and interventions to do so. In sociology
social phenomena are studied: not as a normative problem but as a scientific phenomenon
of interest. Understanding social phenomena thereby contributes to understanding and
solving social problems.
Describe
To get a proper understanding of the nature of social problems, sociologists need to come up
with accurate descriptions of social phenomena, because people could uphold inaccurate
beliefs about it.
Explain
If politicians and policy makers want to solve social problems effectively, they need to know
what causes the problems. So, sociologists come up with explanations and subsequently
use empirical data to examine whether those explanations are true.
Apply
By applying and sharing sociological insights, they return to the normative domain: the public
concern of social problems. Sociological findings can be used for predictions, to provide
evidence to suggest that some social problems will disappear and others will become more
pressing. Sociologists also apply their knowledge to develop and evaluate social
interventions. Interventions are subject to scientific insights and empirical work and are
, targeted towards reducing social problems. When in a public debate there is a discussion
about what to do and policy makers are struggling finding appropriate measures, sociologists
can evaluate various proposed social interventions, as well as developing alternative ones.
They’ll inform social policy makers on if the outcomes are desired, how much the costs and
benefits will be, and if the policies will have other (possibly unintended) consequences.
When sociological work is carried out in view of current social problems that exist in society,
their work has so-called societal-relevance, so the scientific knowledge they produce in
light of social problems. Their contribution is:
1. Come up with accurate descriptions of social phenomena.
2. Dig deeper into the processes that underlie the phenomena (systematically construct
and test explanations leading to a better understanding of what causes them).
3. Apply the knowledge such that they give scientifically grounded predictions of what
will happen as well as developing and evaluating social interventions.
Sociologists fulfill the important role of informing the public debate and policy makers with
scientific knowledge. However, a full understanding of social problems also requires the work
of other scientists due to non-social factors.
1.4 Three types of sociological questions
Questions on social problems are typically formed as normative questions about what
“should be done”. When sociologists study social problems as social phenomena, scientific
aspects, instead of normative elements, are underlined. Answers on normative questions
can differ between people, depending on beliefs, goals, norms and values. They naturally
belong to politics, they are the core of public debate. Sociology is not a normative ideology:
we study the scientific aspects of social problems. So questions need to be targeted towards
social phenomena → scientific questions: 1. descriptive, 2. theoretical or 3. application.
You need to be clear about the underlying aim of the scientific question.
Descriptive questions
Concerned with describing social phenomena. To answer, sociologists observe (with all sorts
of scientific data) what is actually happening.
Theoretical questions
“Explanatory questions” targeted towards
understanding phenomena. The answers are
theories, which provide explanations for social
phenomena and from which hypotheses to test
those explanations derive. Later, the scientific
observations will show if the explanations are
confirmed by evidence or that the data suggests
that the explanations were wrong.
Application questions
Targeted towards applying scientific knowledge. The answers are sociological applications,
such as predictions and social interventions.
