Solidarity and social justice in contemporary
societies
McCaughey (2024), Inequalities unmasked: reality of
disparities across the EU
Inequalities across the European Union have become more pronounced in recent
years, exacerbated by the lingering effects of the recession, the COVID-19 pandemic,
and a cost-of-living crisis. These disparities manifest across various dimensions,
including gender, income, age and geography.
GENDER INEQUALITY
Despite progress, gender disparities persist in the EU labour market. The gender pay
gap remains at 13%, with women earning less than men on average. The gender
employment gap stood at 10.2 percentage points in 2023, with countries like Italy,
Greece and Malta recording gaps close to 20 percentage points. Women are
overrepresented in low-paying jobs and underrepresented in managerial positions.
Even in high-paying roles, the pay gap widens, with women earning 23% less than
men at managerial levels. Additionally, women often face greater emotional demands
at work and bear a disproportionate share of unpaid domestic labour.
INCOME INEQUALITY
Income disparities have evolved differently across EU member states. Between 2006
and 2021, EU-wide income inequality declined significantly, driven by income growth
in central and eastern European countries . However, older member states
experienced increasing income gaps, particularly affecting lower-income earners. The
share of people below the poverty income threshold increased in two-thirds of EU
member states during this period. Welfare systems play a crucial role in mitigating
market income inequalities, reducing them by an average of around 42% across EU
countries.
INTERGENERATIONAL INEQUALITY
The economic impacts of recent crises have varied across age groups. Young people
faced higher job losses during the pandemic, while employment among those aged 50
and over, especially women, has increased since 2007. Income growth since 2008 has
been more substantial for the population aged 60 and over, particularly in southern
Europe, where pensions provide stable income. In contrast, younger individuals'
incomes are more susceptible to employment fluctuations. Housing challenges also
differ by age, with renting increasing among those aged 30–39 and housing costs
rising more for renters than homeowners between 2010 and 2019.
, RURAL-URBAN DIVIDE
Disparities between rural and urban areas have widened, especially in employment
and income. Between 2012 and 2021, the rural–urban income gap increased by nearly
20% . Employment rates and access to services remain higher in urban areas,
contributing to feelings of neglect among rural populations. Educational attainment
and digital skills are also lower in rural regions, further limiting opportunities.
However, rural residents often benefit from lower housing costs and better living
conditions in terms of pollution and crime.
Addressing these multifaceted inequalities requires targeted policies and concerted
efforts to promote social cohesion and equitable development across the EU.
Rawls (2024), A theory of justice
CHAPTER 1: JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS
THE ROLE OF JUSTICE
John Rawls argues that justice is the most important virtue of social institutions, just
as truth is essential in theories. No matter how efficient laws or institutions are, they
must be changed if they are unjust. Individuals have basic rights that cannot be
sacrificed for the sake of social benefits or the greater good. In a just society, these
rights are secure and not subject to political bargaining or utilitarian calculations.
To make sense of this, Rawls proposes a theory of justice—a framework to define fair
rules for distributing rights and responsibilities. He sees society as a cooperative
system that benefits all but also involves conflict over how those benefits are shared.
Therefore, principles of justice are needed to fairly assign duties and distribute
advantages.
A well-ordered society, according to Rawls, is one where everyone accepts the same
principles of justice and institutions reflect them. Even if people disagree about the
best conception of justice, they usually agree on the need for fairness and equality.
Rawls distinguishes between the concept of justice (fairness) and conceptions of
justice (different interpretations of fairness).
Justice also supports broader social goals like coordination, efficiency, and stability.
When people share a sense of justice, they trust each other and cooperate more
effectively. Thus, a good theory of justice must not only ensure fairness but also help
society function smoothly and remain stable over time.
THE SUBJECT OF JUSTICE
John Rawls explains that justice can apply to many things—laws, actions, people—but
his focus is social justice, particularly the basic structure of society. This refers to
major institutions like the political system, economy, and family, which together
determine how rights, duties, and life opportunities are distributed. These institutions
societies
McCaughey (2024), Inequalities unmasked: reality of
disparities across the EU
Inequalities across the European Union have become more pronounced in recent
years, exacerbated by the lingering effects of the recession, the COVID-19 pandemic,
and a cost-of-living crisis. These disparities manifest across various dimensions,
including gender, income, age and geography.
GENDER INEQUALITY
Despite progress, gender disparities persist in the EU labour market. The gender pay
gap remains at 13%, with women earning less than men on average. The gender
employment gap stood at 10.2 percentage points in 2023, with countries like Italy,
Greece and Malta recording gaps close to 20 percentage points. Women are
overrepresented in low-paying jobs and underrepresented in managerial positions.
Even in high-paying roles, the pay gap widens, with women earning 23% less than
men at managerial levels. Additionally, women often face greater emotional demands
at work and bear a disproportionate share of unpaid domestic labour.
INCOME INEQUALITY
Income disparities have evolved differently across EU member states. Between 2006
and 2021, EU-wide income inequality declined significantly, driven by income growth
in central and eastern European countries . However, older member states
experienced increasing income gaps, particularly affecting lower-income earners. The
share of people below the poverty income threshold increased in two-thirds of EU
member states during this period. Welfare systems play a crucial role in mitigating
market income inequalities, reducing them by an average of around 42% across EU
countries.
INTERGENERATIONAL INEQUALITY
The economic impacts of recent crises have varied across age groups. Young people
faced higher job losses during the pandemic, while employment among those aged 50
and over, especially women, has increased since 2007. Income growth since 2008 has
been more substantial for the population aged 60 and over, particularly in southern
Europe, where pensions provide stable income. In contrast, younger individuals'
incomes are more susceptible to employment fluctuations. Housing challenges also
differ by age, with renting increasing among those aged 30–39 and housing costs
rising more for renters than homeowners between 2010 and 2019.
, RURAL-URBAN DIVIDE
Disparities between rural and urban areas have widened, especially in employment
and income. Between 2012 and 2021, the rural–urban income gap increased by nearly
20% . Employment rates and access to services remain higher in urban areas,
contributing to feelings of neglect among rural populations. Educational attainment
and digital skills are also lower in rural regions, further limiting opportunities.
However, rural residents often benefit from lower housing costs and better living
conditions in terms of pollution and crime.
Addressing these multifaceted inequalities requires targeted policies and concerted
efforts to promote social cohesion and equitable development across the EU.
Rawls (2024), A theory of justice
CHAPTER 1: JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS
THE ROLE OF JUSTICE
John Rawls argues that justice is the most important virtue of social institutions, just
as truth is essential in theories. No matter how efficient laws or institutions are, they
must be changed if they are unjust. Individuals have basic rights that cannot be
sacrificed for the sake of social benefits or the greater good. In a just society, these
rights are secure and not subject to political bargaining or utilitarian calculations.
To make sense of this, Rawls proposes a theory of justice—a framework to define fair
rules for distributing rights and responsibilities. He sees society as a cooperative
system that benefits all but also involves conflict over how those benefits are shared.
Therefore, principles of justice are needed to fairly assign duties and distribute
advantages.
A well-ordered society, according to Rawls, is one where everyone accepts the same
principles of justice and institutions reflect them. Even if people disagree about the
best conception of justice, they usually agree on the need for fairness and equality.
Rawls distinguishes between the concept of justice (fairness) and conceptions of
justice (different interpretations of fairness).
Justice also supports broader social goals like coordination, efficiency, and stability.
When people share a sense of justice, they trust each other and cooperate more
effectively. Thus, a good theory of justice must not only ensure fairness but also help
society function smoothly and remain stable over time.
THE SUBJECT OF JUSTICE
John Rawls explains that justice can apply to many things—laws, actions, people—but
his focus is social justice, particularly the basic structure of society. This refers to
major institutions like the political system, economy, and family, which together
determine how rights, duties, and life opportunities are distributed. These institutions
