BMS 310 EXAM 2 UPDATED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
(a) Provide a definition of the term "dementia" and (b) report the estimated number of Americans
diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅3.1a answer: Deterioration of
memory and cognition, alterations in behavior and personality (ethical, moral, and social skills)
3.1b answer: Over 5 million Americans
Describe the most prominent clinical manifestations of Alzheimer's disease. - CORRECT
ANSWER✅✅✅progressive memory loss, cognitive decline, impaired reasoning and judgment,
difficulty with language and communication, and changes in behavior and personality.
Gross pathology of the AD brain - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅-brains have narrowed gyri and widened
sulci due to neuronal loss
-frontal lobe impairment creates impairment in cognition, personality, and social behavior
-temporal lobe impairment causes impairment in memory due to neuron loss in the hippocampus
(a) Identify the lobes (and/or regions of these lobes) of the cerebral cortex which are most vulnerable to
degeneration in the earliest stages of Alzheimer's disease. - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅the temporal
lobes, particularly the hippocampus, and the frontal lobes are most vulnerable to degeneration.
(b) Describe the normal functions of these vulnerable brain regions especially the frontal lobes and
hippocampus. - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅The hippocampus is crucial for the formation of new
memories, while the frontal lobes play a key role in executive functions, including reasoning, decision-
making, and personality expression.
(c) Additionally, describe neurological symptoms caused by degeneration of these structures. - CORRECT
ANSWER✅✅✅memory loss, impaired cognitive function, difficulties in decision-making, and
changes in behavior and personality.
Describe the normal process of acetylcholine formation, acetylcholine breakdown, and cholinergic
transmission at a synapse between two neurons. - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅In the normal process of
cholinergic transmission at a synapse, acetylcholine is formed from choline and acetyl coenzyme A in the
presynaptic neuron, released into the synaptic cleft. Following transmission, acetylcholine is broken
down by acetylcholinesterase, preventing continuous stimulation and allowing for efficient
neurotransmission.
,Biochemical pathology of the AD brain - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅-depletion of acetylcholine in brain
-very noticeable loss of cholinergic neurons in the basal nucleus of Meynert
Discuss the relationship of acetylcholine in Alzheimer's disease and memory loss. Name the drugs
(presented in the video lecture) that targets acetylcholine marketed to help improve cognitive function
in Alzheimer's disease including a description of their mechanism of action. - CORRECT
ANSWER✅✅✅Medications such as Aricept (donepezil) and Exelon (rivastigmine) aim to alleviate
cognitive symptoms by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, thereby increasing acetylcholine levels in the
brain and enhancing neurotransmission, albeit temporarily.
acetylcholinesterase inhibitors - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅used to increase the ACh levels in the CNS
and shown to improve measurements of thinking, daily activities of living and behavior
(a) Name the drug (presented in the video lecture) that targets only the neurotransmitter, glutamate,
marketed to help improve cognitive function in Alzheimer's disease and (b) describe this drug's basic
mechanism of action - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅Glutamate NMDA receptor antagonist, Namenda
-Namenda works by modulating glutamate activity, acting as an NMDA receptor antagonist to regulate
excessive glutamate release
Describe the strategy for developing the drug, Nemzaric, used to treat symptoms of Alzheimer's disease.
- CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅developed as a combination drug for treating Alzheimer's disease
symptoms, combining donepezil, with memantine, an NMDA receptor antagonist targeting both
acetylcholine and glutamate pathways to enhance cognitive function.
Describe which regions of the brain (gray or white matter) contain the highest density of neuritic
plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in an Alzheimer's disease brains. - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅the
highest density of neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles is typically found in the gray matter
regions in the cerebral cortex
neuritic (senile) plaques - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅an insoluble extracellular lesion composed chiefly
of beta-amyloid protein deposited either in diffuse or compact clumps, located in spaces between
neurons, composed primarily of 42 amino acid protein called the beta-amyloid protein
,neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅-intraneuronal accumulations of insoluble,
paired helical filaments (PHFs)
-paired helical filaments are believed to be derived from a cytoskeletal protein (tau)
-aggregating within the neurons' cytoplasmic structures
Describe the formation of beta amyloid protein (42 amino acids) from the beta amyloid precursor
protein (700 amino acids) including the specific enzymatic action of gamma-secretase and beta-
secretase. - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅Beta-amyloid protein (42 amino acids) is formed through the
sequential cleavage of the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP, 700 amino acids) by beta-secretase,
which initiates the process, followed by gamma-secretase, which cleaves within the transmembrane
region, releasing the shorter beta-amyloid fragment and contributing to the accumulation of amyloid
plaques in Alzheimer's disease.
Describe the most contemporary process of visualizing plaques and tangles in the brain of a person
living with Alzheimer's disease - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅The most contemporary process of
visualizing plaques and tangles in the brain of a person with Alzheimer's disease involves non-invasive
neuroimaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) scans using specific radiotracers
that target beta-amyloid plaques and tau tangles
Describe (a) the approach and (b) purpose for removing amyloid plaques from living human brains.
sentence - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅(a) The approach for removing amyloid plaques from living
human brains often involves experimental treatments, such as monoclonal antibodies or other agents,
designed to target and clear accumulated beta-amyloid proteins.
(b) The purpose of removing amyloid plaques is to test the hypothesis that reducing or eliminating these
plaques may slow or halt the progression of Alzheimer's disease
Define (a) upper motor neuron, (b) lower motor neuron, and (c) describe normal connections and routes
of nerve fibers forming the corticospinal tract from the primary motor cortex (in the frontal lobe)
through the brain and spinal cord to skeletal muscle. Name all relevant regions of the spinal cord and
brain these fiber bundles form or pass through. - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅(a) An upper motor
neuron is a nerve cell that originates in the cerebral cortex or brainstem and projects its axon down the
spinal cord or brainstem to synapse with a lower motor neuron.
(b) A lower motor neuron is a nerve cell with its cell body in the spinal cord or brainstem and its axon
extending out to directly innervate skeletal muscles.
, (c) The corticospinal tract, originating from the primary motor cortex in the frontal lobe, forms nerve
fibers that descend through the internal capsule, cerebral peduncles, and pyramids of the medulla
oblongata. Fibers then cross in the medullary decussation, continuing as the lateral corticospinal tract
down the spinal cord, where they synapse with lower motor neurons in relevant regions such as the
ventral horns, influencing skeletal muscle function.
ALS pathophysiology - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅symptoms are caused by degeneration of upper
motor neurons (arising in cerebral cortex) and lower motor neurons (arising in anterior horn cells of the
spinal cord or lower brain stem)
amyotrophic - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅term used to refer to the muscle atrophy due to lack of
neural input
lateral sclerosis - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅term used to refer to the loss of myelinated fiber bundles
and scarring in the lateral white columns of the spinal cord due to loss of cortical motor neurons
symptoms of ALS - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅-sensory and cognitive functions remain intact
-noticeable progressive muscular weakness with eventual paralysis and muscle atrophy
-progressive bulbar palsy-involvement of cranial nerves IX, X, and XII which affects speech, chewing and
swallowing
Describe the typical appearance of a silver-stained cross-section of spinal cord from a person with ALS. -
CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅typically reveals atrophy of the anterior horn cells, demonstrating the
degeneration and loss of motor neurons, a hallmark feature of the disease.
Describe biotechnology developed to assist respiratory function in a person with ALS - CORRECT
ANSWER✅✅✅led to the development of respiratory assistive devices, such as diaphragm pacing
systems or ventilators, to support respiratory function in individuals with ALS by aiding the muscles
involved in breathing.
glutamate excitotoxicity - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅-glutamate transporter re-uptakes glutamate into
axon terminal
-glutamate transporter defective in ALS
(a) Provide a definition of the term "dementia" and (b) report the estimated number of Americans
diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅3.1a answer: Deterioration of
memory and cognition, alterations in behavior and personality (ethical, moral, and social skills)
3.1b answer: Over 5 million Americans
Describe the most prominent clinical manifestations of Alzheimer's disease. - CORRECT
ANSWER✅✅✅progressive memory loss, cognitive decline, impaired reasoning and judgment,
difficulty with language and communication, and changes in behavior and personality.
Gross pathology of the AD brain - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅-brains have narrowed gyri and widened
sulci due to neuronal loss
-frontal lobe impairment creates impairment in cognition, personality, and social behavior
-temporal lobe impairment causes impairment in memory due to neuron loss in the hippocampus
(a) Identify the lobes (and/or regions of these lobes) of the cerebral cortex which are most vulnerable to
degeneration in the earliest stages of Alzheimer's disease. - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅the temporal
lobes, particularly the hippocampus, and the frontal lobes are most vulnerable to degeneration.
(b) Describe the normal functions of these vulnerable brain regions especially the frontal lobes and
hippocampus. - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅The hippocampus is crucial for the formation of new
memories, while the frontal lobes play a key role in executive functions, including reasoning, decision-
making, and personality expression.
(c) Additionally, describe neurological symptoms caused by degeneration of these structures. - CORRECT
ANSWER✅✅✅memory loss, impaired cognitive function, difficulties in decision-making, and
changes in behavior and personality.
Describe the normal process of acetylcholine formation, acetylcholine breakdown, and cholinergic
transmission at a synapse between two neurons. - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅In the normal process of
cholinergic transmission at a synapse, acetylcholine is formed from choline and acetyl coenzyme A in the
presynaptic neuron, released into the synaptic cleft. Following transmission, acetylcholine is broken
down by acetylcholinesterase, preventing continuous stimulation and allowing for efficient
neurotransmission.
,Biochemical pathology of the AD brain - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅-depletion of acetylcholine in brain
-very noticeable loss of cholinergic neurons in the basal nucleus of Meynert
Discuss the relationship of acetylcholine in Alzheimer's disease and memory loss. Name the drugs
(presented in the video lecture) that targets acetylcholine marketed to help improve cognitive function
in Alzheimer's disease including a description of their mechanism of action. - CORRECT
ANSWER✅✅✅Medications such as Aricept (donepezil) and Exelon (rivastigmine) aim to alleviate
cognitive symptoms by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, thereby increasing acetylcholine levels in the
brain and enhancing neurotransmission, albeit temporarily.
acetylcholinesterase inhibitors - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅used to increase the ACh levels in the CNS
and shown to improve measurements of thinking, daily activities of living and behavior
(a) Name the drug (presented in the video lecture) that targets only the neurotransmitter, glutamate,
marketed to help improve cognitive function in Alzheimer's disease and (b) describe this drug's basic
mechanism of action - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅Glutamate NMDA receptor antagonist, Namenda
-Namenda works by modulating glutamate activity, acting as an NMDA receptor antagonist to regulate
excessive glutamate release
Describe the strategy for developing the drug, Nemzaric, used to treat symptoms of Alzheimer's disease.
- CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅developed as a combination drug for treating Alzheimer's disease
symptoms, combining donepezil, with memantine, an NMDA receptor antagonist targeting both
acetylcholine and glutamate pathways to enhance cognitive function.
Describe which regions of the brain (gray or white matter) contain the highest density of neuritic
plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in an Alzheimer's disease brains. - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅the
highest density of neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles is typically found in the gray matter
regions in the cerebral cortex
neuritic (senile) plaques - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅an insoluble extracellular lesion composed chiefly
of beta-amyloid protein deposited either in diffuse or compact clumps, located in spaces between
neurons, composed primarily of 42 amino acid protein called the beta-amyloid protein
,neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅-intraneuronal accumulations of insoluble,
paired helical filaments (PHFs)
-paired helical filaments are believed to be derived from a cytoskeletal protein (tau)
-aggregating within the neurons' cytoplasmic structures
Describe the formation of beta amyloid protein (42 amino acids) from the beta amyloid precursor
protein (700 amino acids) including the specific enzymatic action of gamma-secretase and beta-
secretase. - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅Beta-amyloid protein (42 amino acids) is formed through the
sequential cleavage of the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP, 700 amino acids) by beta-secretase,
which initiates the process, followed by gamma-secretase, which cleaves within the transmembrane
region, releasing the shorter beta-amyloid fragment and contributing to the accumulation of amyloid
plaques in Alzheimer's disease.
Describe the most contemporary process of visualizing plaques and tangles in the brain of a person
living with Alzheimer's disease - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅The most contemporary process of
visualizing plaques and tangles in the brain of a person with Alzheimer's disease involves non-invasive
neuroimaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) scans using specific radiotracers
that target beta-amyloid plaques and tau tangles
Describe (a) the approach and (b) purpose for removing amyloid plaques from living human brains.
sentence - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅(a) The approach for removing amyloid plaques from living
human brains often involves experimental treatments, such as monoclonal antibodies or other agents,
designed to target and clear accumulated beta-amyloid proteins.
(b) The purpose of removing amyloid plaques is to test the hypothesis that reducing or eliminating these
plaques may slow or halt the progression of Alzheimer's disease
Define (a) upper motor neuron, (b) lower motor neuron, and (c) describe normal connections and routes
of nerve fibers forming the corticospinal tract from the primary motor cortex (in the frontal lobe)
through the brain and spinal cord to skeletal muscle. Name all relevant regions of the spinal cord and
brain these fiber bundles form or pass through. - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅(a) An upper motor
neuron is a nerve cell that originates in the cerebral cortex or brainstem and projects its axon down the
spinal cord or brainstem to synapse with a lower motor neuron.
(b) A lower motor neuron is a nerve cell with its cell body in the spinal cord or brainstem and its axon
extending out to directly innervate skeletal muscles.
, (c) The corticospinal tract, originating from the primary motor cortex in the frontal lobe, forms nerve
fibers that descend through the internal capsule, cerebral peduncles, and pyramids of the medulla
oblongata. Fibers then cross in the medullary decussation, continuing as the lateral corticospinal tract
down the spinal cord, where they synapse with lower motor neurons in relevant regions such as the
ventral horns, influencing skeletal muscle function.
ALS pathophysiology - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅symptoms are caused by degeneration of upper
motor neurons (arising in cerebral cortex) and lower motor neurons (arising in anterior horn cells of the
spinal cord or lower brain stem)
amyotrophic - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅term used to refer to the muscle atrophy due to lack of
neural input
lateral sclerosis - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅term used to refer to the loss of myelinated fiber bundles
and scarring in the lateral white columns of the spinal cord due to loss of cortical motor neurons
symptoms of ALS - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅-sensory and cognitive functions remain intact
-noticeable progressive muscular weakness with eventual paralysis and muscle atrophy
-progressive bulbar palsy-involvement of cranial nerves IX, X, and XII which affects speech, chewing and
swallowing
Describe the typical appearance of a silver-stained cross-section of spinal cord from a person with ALS. -
CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅typically reveals atrophy of the anterior horn cells, demonstrating the
degeneration and loss of motor neurons, a hallmark feature of the disease.
Describe biotechnology developed to assist respiratory function in a person with ALS - CORRECT
ANSWER✅✅✅led to the development of respiratory assistive devices, such as diaphragm pacing
systems or ventilators, to support respiratory function in individuals with ALS by aiding the muscles
involved in breathing.
glutamate excitotoxicity - CORRECT ANSWER✅✅✅-glutamate transporter re-uptakes glutamate into
axon terminal
-glutamate transporter defective in ALS
