Summary made by Car da Silva van der Meer - PSB3E-M21 Capita Selecta Forensic Psychology
Part 1: The Causes of Crime
Book: forensic psychology: crime justice, law, intervention
Chapter 1: psychological approach to understanding crime
Introduction: forensic psychology has its roots in legal and criminological psychology. Legal
psychology that covered such things as witness testimony accuracy, witness suggestability, recovered
memories and false confessions. Criminological psychology goes into the legal principle of mens rea,
or the guilty mind, the idea that one is only guilty if one is aware, willing and intentional in the
commitment of crime, as well as developmental factors, biological factors, systemic factors etc. that
may contribute in the development of criminally deviant behaviour.
This book is sorted as such:
Part 1 ⇒ the causes of crime (chapter 1-5)
Part 2 ⇒ investigating crime (chapter 6-12)
Part 3 ⇒ the trial process (chapter 13-16)
Part 4 ⇒ dealing with offenders (chapter 17-23)
1.1 Introduction
Crime can only be explained in a multi-disciplinairy way, not only psychology. This chapter goes over
3 areas:
Outline two contemporary psychological theories of crime
- Moral reasoning theory
- Social information-processing approach to explaining crime
Theories of the three types of serious offending
- Interpersonal violence
- Sexual offending
- Arson
Discussion on the specific issue of mentally disordered offenders
1.2 Psychological theories
1.2.1 Moral Reasoning Theory
Moral reasoning refers to how individuals reason about or justify their behaviour with respect to
moral issues. Many theories on moral development exist, e.g. cognitive-development theory of piaget.
Gibbs (2003) focused only on the first 4 stages of Kohberg’s theory, devided into 2 categories of
immature moral resoning, where reasoning is superficial and egocentric, and mature moral reasoning,
which shows understanding of interpersonal relationships, other peoples needs and social needs.
1
,Summary made by Car da Silva van der Meer - PSB3E-M21 Capita Selecta Forensic Psychology
Immature Moral Reasoning Mature Moral Reasoning
Stage 1: Unilateral and Stage 2: Exchanging Stage 3: Mutual and Stage 4: Systemic and
Physicalistic and Instrumental Prosocial Standard
Reasoning refers to Reasoning Reasoning reflects on Reasoning reflects an
powerful authority incorporates a basic understanding of understanding of
figures and the understanding of interpersonal complex social
physical consequences social interaction. relationship and the systems, with appeals
of behaviour. However, this is norms associated with to societal
Individuals show little typically in terms of these. Empathy and requirements, basic
or no perspective cost/benefit deals, with social rights and values, and
talking the benefit to the perspectivetaking are character/integrity.
individual being of apparent, along with
most importance. ideas appeals to one’s
own conscience.
It is possible to justify offending behaviour at any stage, but circumstances usually occur accompanied
the moral reasoning of less mature stages. Gibbs suggest particular characteristics: 1) developmental
delay, 2) self-serving cognitive distorions and 3) social skill deficiencies.
1.2.3 Social Information-processing and criminal behaviour
At the first two stages individuals may have problems encoding and interpreting social cues, which
may lead to aggressive behaviour.
At the third stage, aggressive individuals generate fewer responses than non-agressive
individuals and more responses were aggressive
At the fifth stage, aggressive individuals evaluate responses by different criteria, rating
aggressive response more positive.
At the sixth stage, aggressive individuals have poor social skills.
These patterns are all influence the development of aggressive behaviour.
1.3 Theories, Evidence and Crime
1.3.1 Interpersonal Violence
Crimes include under interpersonal violence are murder, manslaughter, domestic violence and
robbery. Specialist offenders are rare (organized offenders), but there is a wide range of offenders.
Violent offenders have an early onset of offending behaviour and show considerable continuity of
aggression and violence throughout their life.
1.3.1.1 Social factors and Violence
The role of family and parenting in the development of offending behaviour, as well as the influence
of childhood abuse on future offending behaviour.
1.3.1.2 Cognitive-Behavioural Theory and Violence
This approach focuses on the role of cognitive appraisals and other internal processes in violence.
This involves a hostile attribution bias, empathy and differences in emotional arousal.
2
,Summary made by Car da Silva van der Meer - PSB3E-M21 Capita Selecta Forensic Psychology
1.3.1.3 Neuropsychological Factors and Violence
There is some research into the link between brain damage/dysfunction and violence, especially
around the frontal- and temporal lobes. Damage to the frontal lobe may cause personality changes,
apathy and disinhibition.
The amygdala and ventomedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) were researched in association
with violence, especially psychopathy.
The relationship between braindamage and violence may be bidirectional.
Neuropsychological research suffers from methodological problems, so take it with a grain of salt, it’s
only a part of what may cause violence.
1.3.1.4 Domestic Violence
Domestic violence, or Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is violence perpetrated between partners.
Though a majority of perpetrators are male, this is not exclusively so. There are theories, first one are
feminist theories (implication: men control the lives of women and children due to patriarchy), social
learning (saw IPV, ends up doing IPV; modeling and vicarious learning) and psychopathology among
abusers.
1.3.2 Sexual Offending
This includes rape, unlawful sexual intercourse, indecent assault, indecent exposure and gross
indecency with a child. Non-sexual offenders may still have a sexual element (e.g. sexually motivated
murder.). There are six major theories of sexual offending, three of which cover child sexual abuse,
one relates rape and two try to epxlain all other types of sexual offending.
The four preconditions model says a child molester must pass four conditions prior to offence:
1) Motivation to sexually abuse (like sexual arousal by minors)
2) Internal inhibitions against offending must be overcome (like justifying abuse)
3) External factors must be overcome to allow the abuse to occur (like gaining the trust of a
minor)
4) The child’s resistance must be overcome (like force or grooming)
Another theory (Hall and Hirshmann) also proposes four components needed for offending to happen:
1) Sexual arousal to minors, 2) Attitudes and beliefs (cognitions) that justify child abuse, 3) Poor
self-regulation 4) personality problems. It suggests situational and other factors lead to a vulnerability
of child abuse to be commited due to personality problems.
The pathway model has 4 separate but interacting psychological processes;
1) intimacy/social deficits
2) Distorted sexual scripts
3) Cognitive distortions
4) Emotional dysregulation
Offendings with multiple dysfunctional mechanisms for a fifth pathway, the ‘pure peadophile’
Theories of rape now, an interaction model of sexual aggression. It has two paths: hostile masculinity
path and sexual promiscuity path. Hostile masculinity ⇒ emphasis on aggressive intimate
relationships and sexual conquest with masculinity, valuing power, risk taking, dominance and
competitiveness. Sexual promiscuity ⇒ Role of sexual behaviour to maintian self esteem and peer
status and the appeal of impersonal sex.
3
, Summary made by Car da Silva van der Meer - PSB3E-M21 Capita Selecta Forensic Psychology
The intigrated theory takes into account biological, developmental, socio-cultural and
situational variables on the development of all types of sexual offenders, this theory lacks in
explaining why different types of sexual offenders occur.
The intigrated theory of sexual offending includes biological, neuropsychological and
ecological factors, where ‘vulnerabilities’ in these variables lead to a predisposition to sexual
offending.
Characteristiscs common among rapists:
1) Sexual preoccupation
2) Sexual interest in rape/violence against women
3) Sexual entitlement
4) Hostile masculinity and controlling sexual beliefs
5) Distrust of women
6) Lack of emotional intimacy with other adults
7) Grievance schema
8) Poor problem-solving skills
9) Poor emotional control
10) Lifestyle impulsiveness
New research being done on if online sex offenders are the same as real life sex offenders.
1.3.3 Arson
Arson is the act of deliberately setting fire to property. Firesetting is a term used mainly for children
and doesn’t imply intent.
Geller (1992) proposed arson in four categories: 1) Arson associated with mental disorder, 2)
Arson associated with medical and biological disorders 3) Juvenile fire-play or fire-setting, 4) Arson
not associated with any psychobiological factors.
1.3.3.1 Adult Arsonist
Though most research among arsonists are from the psychiatric population, they are the minority of
arson incidents. Majority of psychiatrically motivated arsonists had interes in firesetting in childhood
and had childhood mental health problems
There is a small amount of research done on the link of arson and developmental disorders
and learning disorders.
Functional analysis highlights the importance of social and environmental stimuli in
reinforcing arson, and the interaction of these predispositions to committing antisocial behaviours.
Canter and Fritzon (1998) created four types of arson, divided over 2 facets:
Person Oriented Arson vs Object-Oriented Arsonist
Expresive Arsonist vs Intrumental Arsonists
1.3.3.2 Juvenile Firesetters
Juvenile firesetters are usually males that show a range of externalised behaviours, including
aggression, extreme antisocial behaviour and conduct disorder. There are high levels of drug and
alcohol abuse. Interpersonal skills are generally pour. Young firesetters have higher than normal
presence of psychiatric problems. Family/parental dysfunction, such as maltreatment and neglect, are
also associated, they’re 40% more likely to have lost their mother, and experience difficulty at school.
Belbove and MacKay (2011) created three groups: 1) conventional-limited, 2)
home-instability moderate, and 3) multi-risk persistent firesetters.
4
Part 1: The Causes of Crime
Book: forensic psychology: crime justice, law, intervention
Chapter 1: psychological approach to understanding crime
Introduction: forensic psychology has its roots in legal and criminological psychology. Legal
psychology that covered such things as witness testimony accuracy, witness suggestability, recovered
memories and false confessions. Criminological psychology goes into the legal principle of mens rea,
or the guilty mind, the idea that one is only guilty if one is aware, willing and intentional in the
commitment of crime, as well as developmental factors, biological factors, systemic factors etc. that
may contribute in the development of criminally deviant behaviour.
This book is sorted as such:
Part 1 ⇒ the causes of crime (chapter 1-5)
Part 2 ⇒ investigating crime (chapter 6-12)
Part 3 ⇒ the trial process (chapter 13-16)
Part 4 ⇒ dealing with offenders (chapter 17-23)
1.1 Introduction
Crime can only be explained in a multi-disciplinairy way, not only psychology. This chapter goes over
3 areas:
Outline two contemporary psychological theories of crime
- Moral reasoning theory
- Social information-processing approach to explaining crime
Theories of the three types of serious offending
- Interpersonal violence
- Sexual offending
- Arson
Discussion on the specific issue of mentally disordered offenders
1.2 Psychological theories
1.2.1 Moral Reasoning Theory
Moral reasoning refers to how individuals reason about or justify their behaviour with respect to
moral issues. Many theories on moral development exist, e.g. cognitive-development theory of piaget.
Gibbs (2003) focused only on the first 4 stages of Kohberg’s theory, devided into 2 categories of
immature moral resoning, where reasoning is superficial and egocentric, and mature moral reasoning,
which shows understanding of interpersonal relationships, other peoples needs and social needs.
1
,Summary made by Car da Silva van der Meer - PSB3E-M21 Capita Selecta Forensic Psychology
Immature Moral Reasoning Mature Moral Reasoning
Stage 1: Unilateral and Stage 2: Exchanging Stage 3: Mutual and Stage 4: Systemic and
Physicalistic and Instrumental Prosocial Standard
Reasoning refers to Reasoning Reasoning reflects on Reasoning reflects an
powerful authority incorporates a basic understanding of understanding of
figures and the understanding of interpersonal complex social
physical consequences social interaction. relationship and the systems, with appeals
of behaviour. However, this is norms associated with to societal
Individuals show little typically in terms of these. Empathy and requirements, basic
or no perspective cost/benefit deals, with social rights and values, and
talking the benefit to the perspectivetaking are character/integrity.
individual being of apparent, along with
most importance. ideas appeals to one’s
own conscience.
It is possible to justify offending behaviour at any stage, but circumstances usually occur accompanied
the moral reasoning of less mature stages. Gibbs suggest particular characteristics: 1) developmental
delay, 2) self-serving cognitive distorions and 3) social skill deficiencies.
1.2.3 Social Information-processing and criminal behaviour
At the first two stages individuals may have problems encoding and interpreting social cues, which
may lead to aggressive behaviour.
At the third stage, aggressive individuals generate fewer responses than non-agressive
individuals and more responses were aggressive
At the fifth stage, aggressive individuals evaluate responses by different criteria, rating
aggressive response more positive.
At the sixth stage, aggressive individuals have poor social skills.
These patterns are all influence the development of aggressive behaviour.
1.3 Theories, Evidence and Crime
1.3.1 Interpersonal Violence
Crimes include under interpersonal violence are murder, manslaughter, domestic violence and
robbery. Specialist offenders are rare (organized offenders), but there is a wide range of offenders.
Violent offenders have an early onset of offending behaviour and show considerable continuity of
aggression and violence throughout their life.
1.3.1.1 Social factors and Violence
The role of family and parenting in the development of offending behaviour, as well as the influence
of childhood abuse on future offending behaviour.
1.3.1.2 Cognitive-Behavioural Theory and Violence
This approach focuses on the role of cognitive appraisals and other internal processes in violence.
This involves a hostile attribution bias, empathy and differences in emotional arousal.
2
,Summary made by Car da Silva van der Meer - PSB3E-M21 Capita Selecta Forensic Psychology
1.3.1.3 Neuropsychological Factors and Violence
There is some research into the link between brain damage/dysfunction and violence, especially
around the frontal- and temporal lobes. Damage to the frontal lobe may cause personality changes,
apathy and disinhibition.
The amygdala and ventomedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) were researched in association
with violence, especially psychopathy.
The relationship between braindamage and violence may be bidirectional.
Neuropsychological research suffers from methodological problems, so take it with a grain of salt, it’s
only a part of what may cause violence.
1.3.1.4 Domestic Violence
Domestic violence, or Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is violence perpetrated between partners.
Though a majority of perpetrators are male, this is not exclusively so. There are theories, first one are
feminist theories (implication: men control the lives of women and children due to patriarchy), social
learning (saw IPV, ends up doing IPV; modeling and vicarious learning) and psychopathology among
abusers.
1.3.2 Sexual Offending
This includes rape, unlawful sexual intercourse, indecent assault, indecent exposure and gross
indecency with a child. Non-sexual offenders may still have a sexual element (e.g. sexually motivated
murder.). There are six major theories of sexual offending, three of which cover child sexual abuse,
one relates rape and two try to epxlain all other types of sexual offending.
The four preconditions model says a child molester must pass four conditions prior to offence:
1) Motivation to sexually abuse (like sexual arousal by minors)
2) Internal inhibitions against offending must be overcome (like justifying abuse)
3) External factors must be overcome to allow the abuse to occur (like gaining the trust of a
minor)
4) The child’s resistance must be overcome (like force or grooming)
Another theory (Hall and Hirshmann) also proposes four components needed for offending to happen:
1) Sexual arousal to minors, 2) Attitudes and beliefs (cognitions) that justify child abuse, 3) Poor
self-regulation 4) personality problems. It suggests situational and other factors lead to a vulnerability
of child abuse to be commited due to personality problems.
The pathway model has 4 separate but interacting psychological processes;
1) intimacy/social deficits
2) Distorted sexual scripts
3) Cognitive distortions
4) Emotional dysregulation
Offendings with multiple dysfunctional mechanisms for a fifth pathway, the ‘pure peadophile’
Theories of rape now, an interaction model of sexual aggression. It has two paths: hostile masculinity
path and sexual promiscuity path. Hostile masculinity ⇒ emphasis on aggressive intimate
relationships and sexual conquest with masculinity, valuing power, risk taking, dominance and
competitiveness. Sexual promiscuity ⇒ Role of sexual behaviour to maintian self esteem and peer
status and the appeal of impersonal sex.
3
, Summary made by Car da Silva van der Meer - PSB3E-M21 Capita Selecta Forensic Psychology
The intigrated theory takes into account biological, developmental, socio-cultural and
situational variables on the development of all types of sexual offenders, this theory lacks in
explaining why different types of sexual offenders occur.
The intigrated theory of sexual offending includes biological, neuropsychological and
ecological factors, where ‘vulnerabilities’ in these variables lead to a predisposition to sexual
offending.
Characteristiscs common among rapists:
1) Sexual preoccupation
2) Sexual interest in rape/violence against women
3) Sexual entitlement
4) Hostile masculinity and controlling sexual beliefs
5) Distrust of women
6) Lack of emotional intimacy with other adults
7) Grievance schema
8) Poor problem-solving skills
9) Poor emotional control
10) Lifestyle impulsiveness
New research being done on if online sex offenders are the same as real life sex offenders.
1.3.3 Arson
Arson is the act of deliberately setting fire to property. Firesetting is a term used mainly for children
and doesn’t imply intent.
Geller (1992) proposed arson in four categories: 1) Arson associated with mental disorder, 2)
Arson associated with medical and biological disorders 3) Juvenile fire-play or fire-setting, 4) Arson
not associated with any psychobiological factors.
1.3.3.1 Adult Arsonist
Though most research among arsonists are from the psychiatric population, they are the minority of
arson incidents. Majority of psychiatrically motivated arsonists had interes in firesetting in childhood
and had childhood mental health problems
There is a small amount of research done on the link of arson and developmental disorders
and learning disorders.
Functional analysis highlights the importance of social and environmental stimuli in
reinforcing arson, and the interaction of these predispositions to committing antisocial behaviours.
Canter and Fritzon (1998) created four types of arson, divided over 2 facets:
Person Oriented Arson vs Object-Oriented Arsonist
Expresive Arsonist vs Intrumental Arsonists
1.3.3.2 Juvenile Firesetters
Juvenile firesetters are usually males that show a range of externalised behaviours, including
aggression, extreme antisocial behaviour and conduct disorder. There are high levels of drug and
alcohol abuse. Interpersonal skills are generally pour. Young firesetters have higher than normal
presence of psychiatric problems. Family/parental dysfunction, such as maltreatment and neglect, are
also associated, they’re 40% more likely to have lost their mother, and experience difficulty at school.
Belbove and MacKay (2011) created three groups: 1) conventional-limited, 2)
home-instability moderate, and 3) multi-risk persistent firesetters.
4
