Criminological Theories Exam Questions and Answers Fully Solved Latest 2025
Choice Theories (Big bracket) - Answers These include the rational choice theory, routine choice theory,
and cultural/anarchic criminology.
Rational Choice Theory - Answers All people, including criminals, are self interested persons seeking to
maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Before engaging in any behavior, people weigh the costs and
benefits. Because criminals have agency, they are responsible for their behaviors and should be
punished accordingly.
Routine Activities Theory - Answers Ignores criminality and concentrates on crime as an event. Crime
occurs in the context of everyday routine activities in some geographic area. Crime is an event at the
confluence of a motivated offender and a suitable target that lacks a capable guardian.
Social Structure Theories (Big bracket) - Answers These include Social Ecology/social disorganization
theory, Anomie theory (Durkheim), Anomie theory/ strain tradition (Merton), Institutional Anomie
theory, General Strain theory, and subcultural theories.
Social Ecology/ Social Disorganization theory - Answers Poverty concentrates people of different cultural
backgrounds and generates cultural conflicts. The breakdown of informal social controls leads to
disorganization, and peer group gangs replace social institutions as socializers.
Social disorganization- ABOUT PLACES, NOT PEOPLE. The breakdown of the power of informal
community norms regulating conduct. Its created by the continuous redistribution of neighborhood
populations, bringing with them a wide variety of cultural traditions sometimes at odds with traditional
American middle class norms of behavior.
Anomie Theory (Durkheim) - Answers Rapid social change leads to social deregulation and the
weakening of restraining social norms. This unleashes "insatiable appetites" which some seek to satisfy
through criminal activity.
Anomie/strain tradition (Merton) - Answers All members of American society are socialized to desire
monetary success, but some are denied access to legitimate ways of attaining it. These people may
resort to crime to achieve what they have been taught to want. Under normal conditions, people are
naturally inclined to abide by social norms and rules. Merton was an immigrant and lived in the slums.
His background shaped this theory. In our culture, goals for everyone to follow are put in place but the
means to reaching this goal is not evenly distributed. People may feel pressure to move up the ladder
and do as well as their own parents, but its hard for individuals to move up on the ladder. Its a high
expectation.
Messner and Rosenfields Institutional Anomie Theory - Answers Messner and Rosenfields extension of
the anomie theory. America is literally organized for crime due to its overweening emphasis on the
economy and material success. All other institutions are devalued and must accommodate themselves
,to the requirement of the economy. American culture devalues the noneconomic function and roles of
other social institutions. There is an over emphasis on money. Religion, family, and other institutions are
just as important. This overemphasis results in crime.
Decommodification- The process of freeing social relationships from economic considerations.
Ex. go to college for the love of learning, not to get a job down the road to earn money.
Robert Agnews General Strain Theory - Answers Robert Agnews extension to the anomie theory. There
are multiple sources of strain, and strain differs along numerous dimensions. Strain is the result of
negative emotions that arise from negative relationships with others and social-cultural forces.
Individual characteristics help us cope either poorly or well with strain. Its not about strain but how to
cope with it. Stresses multiple sources of strain and how people cope with it. We all experience strains
but they differ according to its magnitude, recency, duration, and clustering. There are multiple strains.
Which strains are more likely to lead to crime? Crime is a corrective action to cope with, reduce, and
escape their strains and negative emotions.
Strain can lead to negative attitudes which can lead to aggressive manner/crime.
There are multiple sources of strain. People are pressured into crime as a result of strains and stressors
(lead to negative emotions, anger, frustration). Crime is a corrective action to cope with, reduce, and
escape their strains and negative emotions.
Social Process Theories (Big bracket) - Answers These include differential association theory, social
learning theory, social bonding theory, self-control theory, labeling theory, and neutralization theory.
Sutherlands Differential Association Theory - Answers Edwin Sutherlands theory made in 1939. Its the
earliest social learning theory. It is in the unconstrained group because crime is learned, not a natural
process. Crime is learned in association with peers holding definitions favorable to law violation. It is
most likely to occur in differentially organized (lower income) neighborhoods. Sutherland wanted to get
rid of the idea of social class contributing to crime.
Differential association biological reasons and psychological
Akers Social Learning Theory - Answers Ronald Akers theory. Definitions favorable to law violation
depend on the history of reinforcement and punishment. Excessive rewards for criminal behavior
perpetrate it. People learn criminal behavior using through the psychological principles of operant
conditioning. Social learning theory focuses on four principles-
, 1. differential associations
2. Deferential reinforcements
3. Imitation
4. Definitions
Hirschi's Social Bonding Theory - Answers Travis Hirschi's theory from 1969. It is a social process theory.
Bonds to social institutions prevent crime, which otherwise occurs naturally. The bonds are attachment,
commitment, involvement, and beliefs. The more one is bonded to social conformity, the less likely they
are to commit crimes. Notion that aggressive behavior is unlearned. Its innate. With proper socialization
and social bonds, we curb our natural aggressive behaviors. Its in the constrained vision camp. Crime
happens naturally no matter what, we are inherently evil. Also apart of the classical school. We seek
pleasure and avoid pain.
Hirschi and Gottfredson's Self-Control Theory - Answers Travis Hirschi and Gottfredsons theory. It is a
social process theory. Low self-control explains all crime and analogous acts. Low self-control occurs in
the absence of proper parenting. Exposure to criminal opportunities explains differences in criminal
behavior among low self-control individuals. People who have low self-control are usually risk takers,
present oriented, lack patience, persistence, and diligence, and are very self centered and insensitive.
Poor parenting is the key here. By 7 years old, you are believed to already have your self-control figured
out. It accepts the classical idea that crimes are the result of unrestrained natural human impulses to
enhance pleasure and avoid pain. Low self control is the outcome of poor parenting and the absence of
adequate socialization.
Becker's Labeling Theory - Answers Howard Beckers and developed by Lemert's theory. Crime has no
independent reality. Original primary deviance is unimportant; what is important is the labeling process,
which leads to secondary (continuing) deviance. Labeling people as criminal leads them to organize their
self-concepts around that label. The labeling theory asks why some behaviors are labeled criminal and
not others and thus shifts the focus from the criminal to the criminal justice system. Labeling theorists
believe no act is by its nature criminal because acts don't have a nature until they are judged good or
bad. It ignores mala in se crimes.
Sykes and Matzas's Neutralization Theory - Answers Sykes and Matzas theory. Delinquents and criminals
learn to neutralize moral constraints and thus their guilt for committing crimes. They drift in and out of
crime. Neutralization theory suggests that delinquents and criminals know their behavior is wrong, but
they justify it on a number of grounds. They neutralize any sense of shame or guilt for having committed
some wrongful act, which means that they are at least minimally attached to conventional norms.
Runs counter to the labeling theory because it shows how delinquents resist labeling rather than accept
it.
Choice Theories (Big bracket) - Answers These include the rational choice theory, routine choice theory,
and cultural/anarchic criminology.
Rational Choice Theory - Answers All people, including criminals, are self interested persons seeking to
maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Before engaging in any behavior, people weigh the costs and
benefits. Because criminals have agency, they are responsible for their behaviors and should be
punished accordingly.
Routine Activities Theory - Answers Ignores criminality and concentrates on crime as an event. Crime
occurs in the context of everyday routine activities in some geographic area. Crime is an event at the
confluence of a motivated offender and a suitable target that lacks a capable guardian.
Social Structure Theories (Big bracket) - Answers These include Social Ecology/social disorganization
theory, Anomie theory (Durkheim), Anomie theory/ strain tradition (Merton), Institutional Anomie
theory, General Strain theory, and subcultural theories.
Social Ecology/ Social Disorganization theory - Answers Poverty concentrates people of different cultural
backgrounds and generates cultural conflicts. The breakdown of informal social controls leads to
disorganization, and peer group gangs replace social institutions as socializers.
Social disorganization- ABOUT PLACES, NOT PEOPLE. The breakdown of the power of informal
community norms regulating conduct. Its created by the continuous redistribution of neighborhood
populations, bringing with them a wide variety of cultural traditions sometimes at odds with traditional
American middle class norms of behavior.
Anomie Theory (Durkheim) - Answers Rapid social change leads to social deregulation and the
weakening of restraining social norms. This unleashes "insatiable appetites" which some seek to satisfy
through criminal activity.
Anomie/strain tradition (Merton) - Answers All members of American society are socialized to desire
monetary success, but some are denied access to legitimate ways of attaining it. These people may
resort to crime to achieve what they have been taught to want. Under normal conditions, people are
naturally inclined to abide by social norms and rules. Merton was an immigrant and lived in the slums.
His background shaped this theory. In our culture, goals for everyone to follow are put in place but the
means to reaching this goal is not evenly distributed. People may feel pressure to move up the ladder
and do as well as their own parents, but its hard for individuals to move up on the ladder. Its a high
expectation.
Messner and Rosenfields Institutional Anomie Theory - Answers Messner and Rosenfields extension of
the anomie theory. America is literally organized for crime due to its overweening emphasis on the
economy and material success. All other institutions are devalued and must accommodate themselves
,to the requirement of the economy. American culture devalues the noneconomic function and roles of
other social institutions. There is an over emphasis on money. Religion, family, and other institutions are
just as important. This overemphasis results in crime.
Decommodification- The process of freeing social relationships from economic considerations.
Ex. go to college for the love of learning, not to get a job down the road to earn money.
Robert Agnews General Strain Theory - Answers Robert Agnews extension to the anomie theory. There
are multiple sources of strain, and strain differs along numerous dimensions. Strain is the result of
negative emotions that arise from negative relationships with others and social-cultural forces.
Individual characteristics help us cope either poorly or well with strain. Its not about strain but how to
cope with it. Stresses multiple sources of strain and how people cope with it. We all experience strains
but they differ according to its magnitude, recency, duration, and clustering. There are multiple strains.
Which strains are more likely to lead to crime? Crime is a corrective action to cope with, reduce, and
escape their strains and negative emotions.
Strain can lead to negative attitudes which can lead to aggressive manner/crime.
There are multiple sources of strain. People are pressured into crime as a result of strains and stressors
(lead to negative emotions, anger, frustration). Crime is a corrective action to cope with, reduce, and
escape their strains and negative emotions.
Social Process Theories (Big bracket) - Answers These include differential association theory, social
learning theory, social bonding theory, self-control theory, labeling theory, and neutralization theory.
Sutherlands Differential Association Theory - Answers Edwin Sutherlands theory made in 1939. Its the
earliest social learning theory. It is in the unconstrained group because crime is learned, not a natural
process. Crime is learned in association with peers holding definitions favorable to law violation. It is
most likely to occur in differentially organized (lower income) neighborhoods. Sutherland wanted to get
rid of the idea of social class contributing to crime.
Differential association biological reasons and psychological
Akers Social Learning Theory - Answers Ronald Akers theory. Definitions favorable to law violation
depend on the history of reinforcement and punishment. Excessive rewards for criminal behavior
perpetrate it. People learn criminal behavior using through the psychological principles of operant
conditioning. Social learning theory focuses on four principles-
, 1. differential associations
2. Deferential reinforcements
3. Imitation
4. Definitions
Hirschi's Social Bonding Theory - Answers Travis Hirschi's theory from 1969. It is a social process theory.
Bonds to social institutions prevent crime, which otherwise occurs naturally. The bonds are attachment,
commitment, involvement, and beliefs. The more one is bonded to social conformity, the less likely they
are to commit crimes. Notion that aggressive behavior is unlearned. Its innate. With proper socialization
and social bonds, we curb our natural aggressive behaviors. Its in the constrained vision camp. Crime
happens naturally no matter what, we are inherently evil. Also apart of the classical school. We seek
pleasure and avoid pain.
Hirschi and Gottfredson's Self-Control Theory - Answers Travis Hirschi and Gottfredsons theory. It is a
social process theory. Low self-control explains all crime and analogous acts. Low self-control occurs in
the absence of proper parenting. Exposure to criminal opportunities explains differences in criminal
behavior among low self-control individuals. People who have low self-control are usually risk takers,
present oriented, lack patience, persistence, and diligence, and are very self centered and insensitive.
Poor parenting is the key here. By 7 years old, you are believed to already have your self-control figured
out. It accepts the classical idea that crimes are the result of unrestrained natural human impulses to
enhance pleasure and avoid pain. Low self control is the outcome of poor parenting and the absence of
adequate socialization.
Becker's Labeling Theory - Answers Howard Beckers and developed by Lemert's theory. Crime has no
independent reality. Original primary deviance is unimportant; what is important is the labeling process,
which leads to secondary (continuing) deviance. Labeling people as criminal leads them to organize their
self-concepts around that label. The labeling theory asks why some behaviors are labeled criminal and
not others and thus shifts the focus from the criminal to the criminal justice system. Labeling theorists
believe no act is by its nature criminal because acts don't have a nature until they are judged good or
bad. It ignores mala in se crimes.
Sykes and Matzas's Neutralization Theory - Answers Sykes and Matzas theory. Delinquents and criminals
learn to neutralize moral constraints and thus their guilt for committing crimes. They drift in and out of
crime. Neutralization theory suggests that delinquents and criminals know their behavior is wrong, but
they justify it on a number of grounds. They neutralize any sense of shame or guilt for having committed
some wrongful act, which means that they are at least minimally attached to conventional norms.
Runs counter to the labeling theory because it shows how delinquents resist labeling rather than accept
it.
