CR Final exam with correct actual questions and correctly well defined.

Contradictories - correct answer A pair of claims that are exact opposites of each other. Cannot have the same truth value contraries - correct answer a pair of claims that cannot both be true but can both be false and are not exact opposites inconsistency - correct answer an individual is inconsistent if he/she says two things that cannot be true at the same time Confusing Explanations with Excuses - correct answer The fallacy of presuming that when someone explains how or why something happened, he or she is either excusing or justifying what happened flip-flopping - correct answer gives no reason for thinking that a persons current belief is defective incorrectly combining the probability of independent events - correct answer cannot affect the outcome of another independent events Gambler's Fallacy - correct answer a common and seductive mistake that happens when we do not realize that independent events really are independent Overlooking Prior Probabilities - correct answer A fallacy that occurs when a speaker or writer estimates the probability of something only on the basis of new data without taking into account its prior probability. prior probability - correct answer the true or actual proportion of something Faulty inductive conversion - correct answer information about the percentage of A's that are B's does not by itself tell anything about the percentage of B's that are A's deduction - correct answer demonstrates or proves conclusion (valid/invalid) induction - correct answer supports a conclusion with evidence (strong/weak) argument from analogy - correct answer an argument implies that something has an attribute be a similar thing has that attribute generalizing from a sample - correct answer happens when one reasons that all, most or some % of the members of a pop. have attribute because all must or some % or a sample of pop. have that attribute casual statement - correct answer sets forth the cause of some events casual hypothesis - correct answer a tentative casual statement offered for further investigation or testing Paired Unusual Events Principle - correct answer if something unusual happens, look for something else unusual that has happened and consider whether it might be the cause common variable principle - correct answer a variable common to multiple occurrences of something may be related to it causally covariation principle - correct answer a variation in one phenomenon is accompanied by a variation in another, consider whether the two phenomena may be related causally confirming causal hypothesis - correct answer involves trying to show that the hypothesized cause is the condition "but for which" the effect in question would not happen randomized controlled experiment - correct answer An experiment in which participants are randomly assigned to a control group, which receives no treatment, or to a treatment group, which receives a treatment. prospective observational study - correct answer two groups are compared as to the frequency of something (based on cause) retrospective observational study - correct answer divide into two groups according to the effect then look back to see if there is a pattern in the two groups according to cause Fallacies of Induction - correct answer these arguments are supposed to support the probability of their conclusions but fail Fallacies of Generalization - correct answer generalizing from too few causes argument by anecdote - correct answer fallacy that tries to support or disprove a cause and effect claim by telling a story Fallacy of Small Sample (Hasty Generalization) - correct answer generalizing from a small sample