Week 1: Expansion
Handbook questions
From the end of the 15th century, European navigators, sent by the
Iberian monarchies of Portugal and Spain, reached the American
continent. There they met various indigenous peoples who were organized
in various ways. Present and analyze this encounter and the systems of
settlement, governance and domination that emerged in the 16th century.
1) Which were the two most advanced empires on the Americas? How
were they adopted by Europeans? What factors led to the
emergence of this European dominance?
The most advanced empires were the Aztec Empire (around Mexico)
and the Inca Empire (around the Andes).
The Aztec Empire was formed in the early fifteenth century
through a society between the Mexico people and their allies. The
empire was highly organized, with specialized courts and advanced
astronomy, mathematics, and engineering. The takeover of these
types of cities had both an advantage and a disadvantage: it was
advantageous that the city had already been built up, but it was
disadvantageous that they had perhaps not properly prepared for
this takeover. Due to the constant struggle against their opponents,
the Aztec empire was a warlike, divided and unstable region; partly
because of this, Cortés was able to enter into an alliance with
Tlaxcala, an individual state that had remained out of the hands of
the Aztecs. The role of interpreters was prominent in this, mainly to
make connections. Cortés uses the divide and conquer technique.
Cortés and his forces were invited by Moctezuma to his city, where
they captured him (after seven months in Tenochtitlan, the center of
the Aztec empire), and eventually executed him. Cortés was chased
out of the city, but returned a second time and defeated the Aztec
Empire for good in the late summer of 1521.
The Inca Empire was located 3000 meters above sea level and
had little contact with other peoples. Like the Aztecs, the Incas were
advanced, with colored buttons for administrative accounting
(khipus). In 1438 the Incas expanded into an area that, at its peak,
stretched from Ecuador and Colombia to Chile with Cuzco as its
capital. The empire was divided into four parts, each with its own
divisions. At the time of the Spanish invasion, the empire was
weakened by a civil war over power and various diseases caused by
trade with groups that had been in contact with Europeans.
Atahuapla welcomed the Spaniards led by Pizarro, but had a catch:
with an army of forty thousand people, he wanted to take their
horses and create skilled men for the army. However, the Spaniards
beat him to it and kidnapped him; he was eventually murdered in
1533. When Cuzco fell simultaneously, the Spanish plundered the
city for gold and silver.
, 2) How were the American colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish
governed? Present the key aspects of the governance systems that
have been put in place.
The Portuguese and Spanish colonies were directly governed, with
merchants having to locate to one port where they were taxed and
then could transport their goods within Europe. Their direct rule
involved sending nobles and officers to maintain power within the
colonized areas, who in return were given land to cultivate. Through
agencies such as Home from India the Spanish crown retained a
trade monopoly on European goods and the import and export of
spices and various precious metals. Various administrative customs
were also established, including law codes and legal aids (including
the audience), exercise of military power and local authority
(council).
3) How did the two ancient empires evolve demographically and
economically after the arrival of Europeans?
By using it encomiendasystem, rulers could force the indigenous
population to provide labor and surrender treasures in exchange for
food and shelter. Systems for this already existed, making it easier
for the Spaniards to base their own systems on this and introduce
them simultaneously. It was first used for agricultural exploitation,
but later, in the 1540s, also for labor in the silver mines. The sugar
trade, which originated in Brazil, is important here. Renovating this
required a lot of human resources, which, as many of the indigenous
population died, set in motion the slave trade between Africa and
the Americas. It was later replaced by distribution (in New Spain) or
meter (in Peru), where a number of indigenous people performed
certain tasks for a set period of time.
European domination had disastrous consequences not only
economically, but also for demography; many deaths occurred as a
result of violence and the interruption of agriculture and trade as a
result of the war. However, the main cause of death was the
diseases that the Europeans brought with them (e.g smallpox),
which resulted in the deaths of approximately ninety percent of the
indigenous population. A new 'population' also arrived around 1600:
creoles, American-born Europeans. In response, Spaniards created
new institutions to increase their own quality of life: city squares,
churches, schools and universities. In addition, the Iberians had
sexual intercourse with the native women, which led to the
formation and expansion of mestizo (a population group of mixed
Iberian and Indian descent). Most recently, a large group of
enslaved Africans arrived, creating a new ethnic and racial
population group.
The domination of the Americas by Europeans from the 16th century
onwards contributed to the creation of a global economy. Present and
analyze the goods that were exchanged in this global economy and
analyze the role of the Spanish and Portuguese empires.
,1) What goods were imported and exported from Africa? What role did
the Spanish and/or Portuguese empires play in this flow?
The goods imported from Africa included enslaved people, gold,
ivory and various spices. Both the Spanish and Portuguese empires
played a major role in the slave trade.
2) What goods were imported and exported from America? What role
did the Spanish and/or Portuguese empires play in this flow?
The goods imported from America were gold, silver, tobacco, cotton
and sugar. Both the Spanish and Portuguese empires controlled
these trade flows, for example those of the silver mines (which were
in the hands of the Spanish).
3) What goods were imported and exported from Europe? What role
did the Spanish and/or Portuguese empires play in this flow?
The goods exported from Europe were textiles, weapons and
alcohol. The Spanish and Portuguese empires were both producers
and exporters of this. Their colonial empires were used to create
trading markets to generate additional income.
4) What goods were imported and exported from Asia? What role did
the Spanish and/or Portuguese empires play in this flow?
The goods imported from Asia were spices (pepper, nutmeg), silk
and porcelain. The Portuguese Empire was the first to establish
trade routes between Europe and Asia; Spain followed shortly after
(to the Philippines).
From/To Africa American Europe Asia
Africa X Enslaved Gold Gold, ivory,
tortoiseshel
l
America X X Pumpkin, Gold, silver,
n gold, corn
silver,
tobacco,
cotton,
sugar,
pepper,
corn,
tomatoes,
potatoes
Europe Weapons Horses, X X
(guns, grain,
cannons), grapes,
jewelry, cattle
finished
products
Asia Pepper, Silk, gold, Spices, X
ships, silver textiles,
, (Persian) silk,
carpets porcelain
Literature questions – Manck
a) Mancke argues that the process of early modern European
expansion led to the “politicization of oceanic space.” What exactly
does she mean by 'politicization'?
By politicization of oceanic space, Mancke means that Europeans
saw the sea as a way in which they could expand their territory (and
therefore their power and politics) precisely by controlling and
regulating access to oceans. She no longer wanted to depend on
Asians, Africans and Native Americans, who had until then
controlled the sea; the motivation here was politics and oceanic
space and trade. The areas of power were established in the Treaty
of Tordesillas (1494), in which the Portuguese 'claimed' the Indian
Ocean and the South China Sea. However, this 'claim' continued to
be compromised, including by the Dutch (with the VOC) and the
English (with the EIC), with the definitive areas of power being
formed in the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The disagreements between countries (such as with England) are
'fought out' at sea. This differs from other peoples who used the sea
routes, such as Austronesians who settled on the islands, but had no
political connections with them. Muslim traders also used these
routes, but the area where they exerted influence consisted of many
autonomous areas and therefore could not exercise political power.
b) Why does she argue that oceanic space was so crucial to early
modern European imperialism?
Oceanic space offered new ways for weaker areas (e.g. England and
the Netherlands) to expand and gain power, given their good
connection with the water (the 'seaborne empires'). States such as
England, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain increasingly geared
their economic and military strategies to the control of oceanic
trade routes. Although European influence was initially largely
limited to coastal areas, this laid the foundation for later territorial
expansion, such as the British conquest of Bengal in the 1750s and
1760.
c) How did this shift differ from previous European presence in global
political and economic processes?
By regularly crossing the Atlantic Ocean, Europeans could more
easily create interoceanic trade routes; these included the mid-
Atlantic route, which connected Europe and the Caribbean, the
South Atlantic route, a Portuguese route between West Africa and
Brazil, most recently a route in the north Atlantic ocean, which
connected the fishing industry of Newfoundland (England) with the
Europeans. The Europeans therefore had a direct connection with
their trading areas and often settled here; they were dependent on
local rulers. There was also more competition on a global level, with
European countries going to 'war' with each other to take over
Handbook questions
From the end of the 15th century, European navigators, sent by the
Iberian monarchies of Portugal and Spain, reached the American
continent. There they met various indigenous peoples who were organized
in various ways. Present and analyze this encounter and the systems of
settlement, governance and domination that emerged in the 16th century.
1) Which were the two most advanced empires on the Americas? How
were they adopted by Europeans? What factors led to the
emergence of this European dominance?
The most advanced empires were the Aztec Empire (around Mexico)
and the Inca Empire (around the Andes).
The Aztec Empire was formed in the early fifteenth century
through a society between the Mexico people and their allies. The
empire was highly organized, with specialized courts and advanced
astronomy, mathematics, and engineering. The takeover of these
types of cities had both an advantage and a disadvantage: it was
advantageous that the city had already been built up, but it was
disadvantageous that they had perhaps not properly prepared for
this takeover. Due to the constant struggle against their opponents,
the Aztec empire was a warlike, divided and unstable region; partly
because of this, Cortés was able to enter into an alliance with
Tlaxcala, an individual state that had remained out of the hands of
the Aztecs. The role of interpreters was prominent in this, mainly to
make connections. Cortés uses the divide and conquer technique.
Cortés and his forces were invited by Moctezuma to his city, where
they captured him (after seven months in Tenochtitlan, the center of
the Aztec empire), and eventually executed him. Cortés was chased
out of the city, but returned a second time and defeated the Aztec
Empire for good in the late summer of 1521.
The Inca Empire was located 3000 meters above sea level and
had little contact with other peoples. Like the Aztecs, the Incas were
advanced, with colored buttons for administrative accounting
(khipus). In 1438 the Incas expanded into an area that, at its peak,
stretched from Ecuador and Colombia to Chile with Cuzco as its
capital. The empire was divided into four parts, each with its own
divisions. At the time of the Spanish invasion, the empire was
weakened by a civil war over power and various diseases caused by
trade with groups that had been in contact with Europeans.
Atahuapla welcomed the Spaniards led by Pizarro, but had a catch:
with an army of forty thousand people, he wanted to take their
horses and create skilled men for the army. However, the Spaniards
beat him to it and kidnapped him; he was eventually murdered in
1533. When Cuzco fell simultaneously, the Spanish plundered the
city for gold and silver.
, 2) How were the American colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish
governed? Present the key aspects of the governance systems that
have been put in place.
The Portuguese and Spanish colonies were directly governed, with
merchants having to locate to one port where they were taxed and
then could transport their goods within Europe. Their direct rule
involved sending nobles and officers to maintain power within the
colonized areas, who in return were given land to cultivate. Through
agencies such as Home from India the Spanish crown retained a
trade monopoly on European goods and the import and export of
spices and various precious metals. Various administrative customs
were also established, including law codes and legal aids (including
the audience), exercise of military power and local authority
(council).
3) How did the two ancient empires evolve demographically and
economically after the arrival of Europeans?
By using it encomiendasystem, rulers could force the indigenous
population to provide labor and surrender treasures in exchange for
food and shelter. Systems for this already existed, making it easier
for the Spaniards to base their own systems on this and introduce
them simultaneously. It was first used for agricultural exploitation,
but later, in the 1540s, also for labor in the silver mines. The sugar
trade, which originated in Brazil, is important here. Renovating this
required a lot of human resources, which, as many of the indigenous
population died, set in motion the slave trade between Africa and
the Americas. It was later replaced by distribution (in New Spain) or
meter (in Peru), where a number of indigenous people performed
certain tasks for a set period of time.
European domination had disastrous consequences not only
economically, but also for demography; many deaths occurred as a
result of violence and the interruption of agriculture and trade as a
result of the war. However, the main cause of death was the
diseases that the Europeans brought with them (e.g smallpox),
which resulted in the deaths of approximately ninety percent of the
indigenous population. A new 'population' also arrived around 1600:
creoles, American-born Europeans. In response, Spaniards created
new institutions to increase their own quality of life: city squares,
churches, schools and universities. In addition, the Iberians had
sexual intercourse with the native women, which led to the
formation and expansion of mestizo (a population group of mixed
Iberian and Indian descent). Most recently, a large group of
enslaved Africans arrived, creating a new ethnic and racial
population group.
The domination of the Americas by Europeans from the 16th century
onwards contributed to the creation of a global economy. Present and
analyze the goods that were exchanged in this global economy and
analyze the role of the Spanish and Portuguese empires.
,1) What goods were imported and exported from Africa? What role did
the Spanish and/or Portuguese empires play in this flow?
The goods imported from Africa included enslaved people, gold,
ivory and various spices. Both the Spanish and Portuguese empires
played a major role in the slave trade.
2) What goods were imported and exported from America? What role
did the Spanish and/or Portuguese empires play in this flow?
The goods imported from America were gold, silver, tobacco, cotton
and sugar. Both the Spanish and Portuguese empires controlled
these trade flows, for example those of the silver mines (which were
in the hands of the Spanish).
3) What goods were imported and exported from Europe? What role
did the Spanish and/or Portuguese empires play in this flow?
The goods exported from Europe were textiles, weapons and
alcohol. The Spanish and Portuguese empires were both producers
and exporters of this. Their colonial empires were used to create
trading markets to generate additional income.
4) What goods were imported and exported from Asia? What role did
the Spanish and/or Portuguese empires play in this flow?
The goods imported from Asia were spices (pepper, nutmeg), silk
and porcelain. The Portuguese Empire was the first to establish
trade routes between Europe and Asia; Spain followed shortly after
(to the Philippines).
From/To Africa American Europe Asia
Africa X Enslaved Gold Gold, ivory,
tortoiseshel
l
America X X Pumpkin, Gold, silver,
n gold, corn
silver,
tobacco,
cotton,
sugar,
pepper,
corn,
tomatoes,
potatoes
Europe Weapons Horses, X X
(guns, grain,
cannons), grapes,
jewelry, cattle
finished
products
Asia Pepper, Silk, gold, Spices, X
ships, silver textiles,
, (Persian) silk,
carpets porcelain
Literature questions – Manck
a) Mancke argues that the process of early modern European
expansion led to the “politicization of oceanic space.” What exactly
does she mean by 'politicization'?
By politicization of oceanic space, Mancke means that Europeans
saw the sea as a way in which they could expand their territory (and
therefore their power and politics) precisely by controlling and
regulating access to oceans. She no longer wanted to depend on
Asians, Africans and Native Americans, who had until then
controlled the sea; the motivation here was politics and oceanic
space and trade. The areas of power were established in the Treaty
of Tordesillas (1494), in which the Portuguese 'claimed' the Indian
Ocean and the South China Sea. However, this 'claim' continued to
be compromised, including by the Dutch (with the VOC) and the
English (with the EIC), with the definitive areas of power being
formed in the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The disagreements between countries (such as with England) are
'fought out' at sea. This differs from other peoples who used the sea
routes, such as Austronesians who settled on the islands, but had no
political connections with them. Muslim traders also used these
routes, but the area where they exerted influence consisted of many
autonomous areas and therefore could not exercise political power.
b) Why does she argue that oceanic space was so crucial to early
modern European imperialism?
Oceanic space offered new ways for weaker areas (e.g. England and
the Netherlands) to expand and gain power, given their good
connection with the water (the 'seaborne empires'). States such as
England, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain increasingly geared
their economic and military strategies to the control of oceanic
trade routes. Although European influence was initially largely
limited to coastal areas, this laid the foundation for later territorial
expansion, such as the British conquest of Bengal in the 1750s and
1760.
c) How did this shift differ from previous European presence in global
political and economic processes?
By regularly crossing the Atlantic Ocean, Europeans could more
easily create interoceanic trade routes; these included the mid-
Atlantic route, which connected Europe and the Caribbean, the
South Atlantic route, a Portuguese route between West Africa and
Brazil, most recently a route in the north Atlantic ocean, which
connected the fishing industry of Newfoundland (England) with the
Europeans. The Europeans therefore had a direct connection with
their trading areas and often settled here; they were dependent on
local rulers. There was also more competition on a global level, with
European countries going to 'war' with each other to take over
