Inhoudsopgave
Psychological Science..................................................................................................................................... 2
Chapter 2, Research Methodology..................................................................................2
2.1 Science has three primary goals................................................................................................................3
2.2 The scientific method is a systematic way to test hypotheses..................................................................3
2.3 The scientific method is cyclical.................................................................................................................4
2.4 Critical thinking is essential to evaluating scientific findings.....................................................................5
2.5 Descriptive research consists of case studies, observation and self-report methods...............................6
2.6 Correlational studies describe and predict how variables are related......................................................7
2.7 The experimental method controls and explains......................................................................................8
2.8 Participants need to be randomly assigned to conditions and carefully selected....................................8
2.9 There are ethical issues to consider in research with human participants...............................................9
2.10 Have you participated in research without knowing it?..........................................................................9
2.11 There are ethical issues to consider in research with animals................................................................9
2.12 Good research requires valid, reliable and accurate data.....................................................................10
2.13 Descriptive statistics provide a summary of the data............................................................................10
2.14 Inferential statistics permit generalizations...........................................................................................11
2.15 Should you believe in extrasensory perception?...................................................................................11
Chapter 4, consciousness.............................................................................................11
4.1 Consciousness Is Limited.........................................................................................................................11
4.2 Attention Is the Gateway to Conscious Awareness.................................................................................11
4.3 Laptops in the Classroom.........................................................................................................................12
4.4 Unconscious Processing Can Influence Behavior....................................................................................12
4.5 Automatic Processing Reduces Demands on Consciousness..................................................................13
4.6 Meditation Produces Relaxation by Guiding Attention...........................................................................13
4.7 Does Meditation Change the Structure of the Brain?.............................................................................14
4.8 People Can Lose Themselves in Activities...............................................................................................14
4.9 Hypnosis Is Induced Through Suggestion................................................................................................14
4.10 Sleep Is an Altered State of Consciousness...........................................................................................15
4.11 People Dream While Sleeping...............................................................................................................17
4.12 Sleep Is an Adaptive Behavior...............................................................................................................18
4.13 Sleep Disorders Interfere with Daily Life...............................................................................................19
4.14 How Can You Get a Good Night’s Sleep?...............................................................................................21
4.15 Brain Injury Can Diminish Consciousness..............................................................................................21
4.16 Drugs Alter Consciousness by Changing Brain Neurochemistry............................................................22
4.17 People Use and Abuse Many Psychoactive Drugs.................................................................................23
4.18 Alcohol Abuse Is Responsible for Many Societal Problems...................................................................24
Chapter 12, social psychology......................................................................................25
12.1 People Favor Their Own Groups............................................................................................................25
12.2 Groups Influence Individual Behavior....................................................................................................26
12.3 People Conform with Others.................................................................................................................27
12.4 Can Social Norms Marketing Reduce Binge Drinking?..........................................................................27
12.5 People Obey Authority Figures..............................................................................................................28
12.6 Many Factors Can Influence Aggression................................................................................................28
12.7 Cooperation Can Reduce Outgroup Bias...............................................................................................29
12.8 Many Factors Can Influence Helping Behavior......................................................................................29
12.9 People Form Attitudes through Experience and Socialization..............................................................30
12.10 Discrepancies Lead to Dissonance.......................................................................................................31
12.11 Attitudes and Behaviors Can Be Changed Through Persuasion...........................................................32
12.12 People Make Judgments About Others...............................................................................................33
12.13 Stereotypes Can Lead to Prejudice and Discrimination......................................................................34
12.14 Prejudice and Its Effects Can Be Reduced............................................................................................35
12.15 Situational and Personal Factors Influence Interpersonal Attraction and Friendships.......................35
1
, 12.16 Emotions Play an Important Role in Romantic Relationships..............................................................37
12.17 Findings from Psychological Science Can Benefit Your Relationship...................................................38
Chapter 2, Research Methodology..................................................................................2
2.1 Science has three primary goals.................................................................................. 2
2.2 The scientific method is a systematic way to test hypotheses................................3
2.3 The scientific method is cyclical................................................................................... 4
2.4 Critical thinking is essential to evaluating scientific findings..................................5
2.5 Descriptive research consists of case studies, observation and self-report
methods.................................................................................................................................. 5
2.6 Correlational studies describe and predict how variables are related...................6
2.7 The experimental method controls and explains.......................................................7
2.8 Participants need to be randomly assigned to conditions and carefully selected 7
2.9 There are ethical issues to consider in research with human participants............8
2.10 Have you participated in research without knowing it?.........................................8
2.11 There are ethical issues to consider in research with animals..............................9
2.12 Good research requires valid, reliable and accurate data......................................9
2.13 Descriptive statistics provide a summary of the data............................................9
2.14 Inferential statistics permit generalizations..........................................................10
2.15 Should you believe in extrasensory perception?...................................................10
Chapter 4, consciousness.............................................................................................10
4.1 Consciousness Is Limited............................................................................................. 10
4.2 Attention Is the Gateway to Conscious Awareness..................................................10
4.3 Laptops in the Classroom............................................................................................ 11
4.4 Unconscious Processing Can Influence Behavior.....................................................11
4.5 Automatic Processing Reduces Demands on Consciousness..................................11
4.6 Meditation Produces Relaxation by Guiding Attention...........................................12
4.7 Does Meditation Change the Structure of the Brain?..............................................12
4.8 People Can Lose Themselves in Activities.................................................................13
4.9 Hypnosis Is Induced Through Suggestion.................................................................13
4.10 Sleep Is an Altered State of Consciousness............................................................14
4.11 People Dream While Sleeping................................................................................... 16
4.12 Sleep Is an Adaptive Behavior.................................................................................. 17
4.13 Sleep Disorders Interfere with Daily Life................................................................18
4.14 How Can You Get a Good Night’s Sleep?.................................................................19
4.15 Brain Injury Can Diminish Consciousness...............................................................19
4.16 Drugs Alter Consciousness by Changing Brain Neurochemistry..........................20
4.17 People Use and Abuse Many Psychoactive Drugs..................................................21
4.18 Alcohol Abuse Is Responsible for Many Societal Problems..................................22
Chapter 12, social psychology......................................................................................23
12.1 People Favor Their Own Groups................................................................................ 23
12.2 Groups Influence Individual Behavior......................................................................24
12.3 People Conform with Others..................................................................................... 25
12.4 Can Social Norms Marketing Reduce Binge Drinking?...........................................26
12.5 People Obey Authority Figures................................................................................. 26
12.6 Many Factors Can Influence Aggression..................................................................26
12.7 Cooperation Can Reduce Outgroup Bias..................................................................27
12.8 Many Factors Can Influence Helping Behavior.......................................................27
12.9 People Form Attitudes through Experience and Socialization.............................28
12.10 Discrepancies Lead to Dissonance.........................................................................29
12.11 Attitudes and Behaviors Can Be Changed Through Persuasion........................30
12.12 People Make Judgments About Others..................................................................31
12.13 Stereotypes Can Lead to Prejudice and Discrimination......................................32
12.14 Prejudice and Its Effects Can Be Reduced.............................................................33
12.15 Situational and Personal Factors Influence Interpersonal Attraction and
Friendships........................................................................................................................... 33
12.16 Emotions Play an Important Role in Romantic Relationships............................34
12.17 Findings from Psychological Science Can Benefit Your Relationship................36
Psychological Science
Chapter 2, Research Methodology
Big questions:
2
, - How is the scientific method used in psychological research?
- What types of studies are used in
- What are ethics governing psychological
- How are data analyzed and evaluated?
2.1 Science has three primary goals
Three primary goals of science:
1. Description
2. Prediction
3. Explanation
Psychological science uses research to
describe what a phenomenon is, predict when
and where it will occur, and explain the
For example: consider the observation that
people vape even though they know it can be
harmful. To understand how this behavior
- We begin by asking: how many people
really use e-cigarettes, and are they
aware of the harms. What are people-s
beliefs about vaping? How did they start?
answering these questions can help us predict who is more likely
- Next, what psychotically processes give rise to the decision to start
vaping? answering this question can help us to understand the
causal factors that explain why people vape. This can help
prevention and treatment programs that will benefit public health.
Research a scientific process that involves the careful collection
analysis and interpretation of data.
Data measurements gathered during the research process.
Scientific method a systematic and dynamic procedure of observing
and measuring phenomena used to achieve the goals of description,
prediction, control and explanation. It involves an interaction among
research, theories and hypotheses.
Theory a model of interconnected ideas or concepts that explains what
is observed and makes predictions about future event. Theories are based
on empirical evidence
Hypothesis a specific, testable prediction, narrower that the theory it is
based on.
2.2 The scientific method is a systematic way to test hypotheses
Seven steps that define the scientific method:
1. Pose a specific, testable research question
Researchers can use science to answer a variety of questions, but it
usually makes sense to start with a basic question that directly tests
the theory.
- Do peer pressure cause teens to start using e-cigarettes?
3
, 2. Educate yourself about what is already known about your
theory
Once you have a research question, you want to search the
literature to see what scientists have already discovered that is
relevant to your theory.
- PsycINFO, Google Scholar and PubMed.
3. Form a hypothesis that will guide your studies
After you have learned from your literature review and specific
research studies. You need to predict a hypothesis. Results from a
test that are consistent with a good hypothesis can provide support
for your theory.
4. Design a study
Designing a study refers to deciding which research method you
want to use to test your hypothesis.
- Survey Give people a questionnaire that asks how many of their
friends use e-cigarettes and whether and how often they themselves
vape.
- Naturalistic observation Watch a group of teens over time and
record whether they use e-cigarettes.
- Actual experiment assigning one group of people to experience
peer pressure to use e-cigarettes and a second group not to
experience it.
5. Conduct the study
Recruit participant and measure their response. Also known as
collecting data or gathering data.
Variable something in the world that can vary and that a
researcher can manipulate, measure or both.
Operational definition a definition that describes and measures
a variable so the variable can be understood objectively.
6. Analyze the data
There are two main ways to analyze data. First, you want to describe
the data. What was the average amount of peer influence? How
typical is that average? Second, you will want to know what
conclusions you can draw from your data. You need to know whether
your results are meaningful or whether they happened by chance.
7. Report the results
Scientists make their findings public to benefit society, to support
the scientistic culture and to permit other scientist to build on their
work. You can public your results on various platforms.
2.3 The scientific method is cyclical.
Replication repetition of a research study to confirm or contradict the
results. It involves repeating a study to see if the results are the same or
similar.
Studies do not always replicate. A challenge for scientists in psychology
and all other fields is to understand why. Sometimes studies fail to
replicate because the theory itself is wrong and the original study was a
false positive.
4
Psychological Science..................................................................................................................................... 2
Chapter 2, Research Methodology..................................................................................2
2.1 Science has three primary goals................................................................................................................3
2.2 The scientific method is a systematic way to test hypotheses..................................................................3
2.3 The scientific method is cyclical.................................................................................................................4
2.4 Critical thinking is essential to evaluating scientific findings.....................................................................5
2.5 Descriptive research consists of case studies, observation and self-report methods...............................6
2.6 Correlational studies describe and predict how variables are related......................................................7
2.7 The experimental method controls and explains......................................................................................8
2.8 Participants need to be randomly assigned to conditions and carefully selected....................................8
2.9 There are ethical issues to consider in research with human participants...............................................9
2.10 Have you participated in research without knowing it?..........................................................................9
2.11 There are ethical issues to consider in research with animals................................................................9
2.12 Good research requires valid, reliable and accurate data.....................................................................10
2.13 Descriptive statistics provide a summary of the data............................................................................10
2.14 Inferential statistics permit generalizations...........................................................................................11
2.15 Should you believe in extrasensory perception?...................................................................................11
Chapter 4, consciousness.............................................................................................11
4.1 Consciousness Is Limited.........................................................................................................................11
4.2 Attention Is the Gateway to Conscious Awareness.................................................................................11
4.3 Laptops in the Classroom.........................................................................................................................12
4.4 Unconscious Processing Can Influence Behavior....................................................................................12
4.5 Automatic Processing Reduces Demands on Consciousness..................................................................13
4.6 Meditation Produces Relaxation by Guiding Attention...........................................................................13
4.7 Does Meditation Change the Structure of the Brain?.............................................................................14
4.8 People Can Lose Themselves in Activities...............................................................................................14
4.9 Hypnosis Is Induced Through Suggestion................................................................................................14
4.10 Sleep Is an Altered State of Consciousness...........................................................................................15
4.11 People Dream While Sleeping...............................................................................................................17
4.12 Sleep Is an Adaptive Behavior...............................................................................................................18
4.13 Sleep Disorders Interfere with Daily Life...............................................................................................19
4.14 How Can You Get a Good Night’s Sleep?...............................................................................................21
4.15 Brain Injury Can Diminish Consciousness..............................................................................................21
4.16 Drugs Alter Consciousness by Changing Brain Neurochemistry............................................................22
4.17 People Use and Abuse Many Psychoactive Drugs.................................................................................23
4.18 Alcohol Abuse Is Responsible for Many Societal Problems...................................................................24
Chapter 12, social psychology......................................................................................25
12.1 People Favor Their Own Groups............................................................................................................25
12.2 Groups Influence Individual Behavior....................................................................................................26
12.3 People Conform with Others.................................................................................................................27
12.4 Can Social Norms Marketing Reduce Binge Drinking?..........................................................................27
12.5 People Obey Authority Figures..............................................................................................................28
12.6 Many Factors Can Influence Aggression................................................................................................28
12.7 Cooperation Can Reduce Outgroup Bias...............................................................................................29
12.8 Many Factors Can Influence Helping Behavior......................................................................................29
12.9 People Form Attitudes through Experience and Socialization..............................................................30
12.10 Discrepancies Lead to Dissonance.......................................................................................................31
12.11 Attitudes and Behaviors Can Be Changed Through Persuasion...........................................................32
12.12 People Make Judgments About Others...............................................................................................33
12.13 Stereotypes Can Lead to Prejudice and Discrimination......................................................................34
12.14 Prejudice and Its Effects Can Be Reduced............................................................................................35
12.15 Situational and Personal Factors Influence Interpersonal Attraction and Friendships.......................35
1
, 12.16 Emotions Play an Important Role in Romantic Relationships..............................................................37
12.17 Findings from Psychological Science Can Benefit Your Relationship...................................................38
Chapter 2, Research Methodology..................................................................................2
2.1 Science has three primary goals.................................................................................. 2
2.2 The scientific method is a systematic way to test hypotheses................................3
2.3 The scientific method is cyclical................................................................................... 4
2.4 Critical thinking is essential to evaluating scientific findings..................................5
2.5 Descriptive research consists of case studies, observation and self-report
methods.................................................................................................................................. 5
2.6 Correlational studies describe and predict how variables are related...................6
2.7 The experimental method controls and explains.......................................................7
2.8 Participants need to be randomly assigned to conditions and carefully selected 7
2.9 There are ethical issues to consider in research with human participants............8
2.10 Have you participated in research without knowing it?.........................................8
2.11 There are ethical issues to consider in research with animals..............................9
2.12 Good research requires valid, reliable and accurate data......................................9
2.13 Descriptive statistics provide a summary of the data............................................9
2.14 Inferential statistics permit generalizations..........................................................10
2.15 Should you believe in extrasensory perception?...................................................10
Chapter 4, consciousness.............................................................................................10
4.1 Consciousness Is Limited............................................................................................. 10
4.2 Attention Is the Gateway to Conscious Awareness..................................................10
4.3 Laptops in the Classroom............................................................................................ 11
4.4 Unconscious Processing Can Influence Behavior.....................................................11
4.5 Automatic Processing Reduces Demands on Consciousness..................................11
4.6 Meditation Produces Relaxation by Guiding Attention...........................................12
4.7 Does Meditation Change the Structure of the Brain?..............................................12
4.8 People Can Lose Themselves in Activities.................................................................13
4.9 Hypnosis Is Induced Through Suggestion.................................................................13
4.10 Sleep Is an Altered State of Consciousness............................................................14
4.11 People Dream While Sleeping................................................................................... 16
4.12 Sleep Is an Adaptive Behavior.................................................................................. 17
4.13 Sleep Disorders Interfere with Daily Life................................................................18
4.14 How Can You Get a Good Night’s Sleep?.................................................................19
4.15 Brain Injury Can Diminish Consciousness...............................................................19
4.16 Drugs Alter Consciousness by Changing Brain Neurochemistry..........................20
4.17 People Use and Abuse Many Psychoactive Drugs..................................................21
4.18 Alcohol Abuse Is Responsible for Many Societal Problems..................................22
Chapter 12, social psychology......................................................................................23
12.1 People Favor Their Own Groups................................................................................ 23
12.2 Groups Influence Individual Behavior......................................................................24
12.3 People Conform with Others..................................................................................... 25
12.4 Can Social Norms Marketing Reduce Binge Drinking?...........................................26
12.5 People Obey Authority Figures................................................................................. 26
12.6 Many Factors Can Influence Aggression..................................................................26
12.7 Cooperation Can Reduce Outgroup Bias..................................................................27
12.8 Many Factors Can Influence Helping Behavior.......................................................27
12.9 People Form Attitudes through Experience and Socialization.............................28
12.10 Discrepancies Lead to Dissonance.........................................................................29
12.11 Attitudes and Behaviors Can Be Changed Through Persuasion........................30
12.12 People Make Judgments About Others..................................................................31
12.13 Stereotypes Can Lead to Prejudice and Discrimination......................................32
12.14 Prejudice and Its Effects Can Be Reduced.............................................................33
12.15 Situational and Personal Factors Influence Interpersonal Attraction and
Friendships........................................................................................................................... 33
12.16 Emotions Play an Important Role in Romantic Relationships............................34
12.17 Findings from Psychological Science Can Benefit Your Relationship................36
Psychological Science
Chapter 2, Research Methodology
Big questions:
2
, - How is the scientific method used in psychological research?
- What types of studies are used in
- What are ethics governing psychological
- How are data analyzed and evaluated?
2.1 Science has three primary goals
Three primary goals of science:
1. Description
2. Prediction
3. Explanation
Psychological science uses research to
describe what a phenomenon is, predict when
and where it will occur, and explain the
For example: consider the observation that
people vape even though they know it can be
harmful. To understand how this behavior
- We begin by asking: how many people
really use e-cigarettes, and are they
aware of the harms. What are people-s
beliefs about vaping? How did they start?
answering these questions can help us predict who is more likely
- Next, what psychotically processes give rise to the decision to start
vaping? answering this question can help us to understand the
causal factors that explain why people vape. This can help
prevention and treatment programs that will benefit public health.
Research a scientific process that involves the careful collection
analysis and interpretation of data.
Data measurements gathered during the research process.
Scientific method a systematic and dynamic procedure of observing
and measuring phenomena used to achieve the goals of description,
prediction, control and explanation. It involves an interaction among
research, theories and hypotheses.
Theory a model of interconnected ideas or concepts that explains what
is observed and makes predictions about future event. Theories are based
on empirical evidence
Hypothesis a specific, testable prediction, narrower that the theory it is
based on.
2.2 The scientific method is a systematic way to test hypotheses
Seven steps that define the scientific method:
1. Pose a specific, testable research question
Researchers can use science to answer a variety of questions, but it
usually makes sense to start with a basic question that directly tests
the theory.
- Do peer pressure cause teens to start using e-cigarettes?
3
, 2. Educate yourself about what is already known about your
theory
Once you have a research question, you want to search the
literature to see what scientists have already discovered that is
relevant to your theory.
- PsycINFO, Google Scholar and PubMed.
3. Form a hypothesis that will guide your studies
After you have learned from your literature review and specific
research studies. You need to predict a hypothesis. Results from a
test that are consistent with a good hypothesis can provide support
for your theory.
4. Design a study
Designing a study refers to deciding which research method you
want to use to test your hypothesis.
- Survey Give people a questionnaire that asks how many of their
friends use e-cigarettes and whether and how often they themselves
vape.
- Naturalistic observation Watch a group of teens over time and
record whether they use e-cigarettes.
- Actual experiment assigning one group of people to experience
peer pressure to use e-cigarettes and a second group not to
experience it.
5. Conduct the study
Recruit participant and measure their response. Also known as
collecting data or gathering data.
Variable something in the world that can vary and that a
researcher can manipulate, measure or both.
Operational definition a definition that describes and measures
a variable so the variable can be understood objectively.
6. Analyze the data
There are two main ways to analyze data. First, you want to describe
the data. What was the average amount of peer influence? How
typical is that average? Second, you will want to know what
conclusions you can draw from your data. You need to know whether
your results are meaningful or whether they happened by chance.
7. Report the results
Scientists make their findings public to benefit society, to support
the scientistic culture and to permit other scientist to build on their
work. You can public your results on various platforms.
2.3 The scientific method is cyclical.
Replication repetition of a research study to confirm or contradict the
results. It involves repeating a study to see if the results are the same or
similar.
Studies do not always replicate. A challenge for scientists in psychology
and all other fields is to understand why. Sometimes studies fail to
replicate because the theory itself is wrong and the original study was a
false positive.
4
