, Chapter 2
Process of scientific research
Definitions
Deductive reasoning: ideas are tested in the real world
Inductive reasoning: real-world observations lead to new ideas Inter-rater reliability: a measure of
reliability that assesses the
Hypotheses or general premise consistency of observations by
Inductive Deductive different observers
reasoning reasoning
Empirical observations Variable: smth that varies across
human beings and can be measured
( tall, old, .... )
Independent variable: manipulated or
Research methods controlled by experimenter
1. Clinical or case studies: focus on one person or just a few Dependent variable: the one we want
individuals and really study them in depth usually studied to explain
the individuals have a rare characteristic)
7 Hard to generalize Third variable/confound: another
variable, that can influence both
2. Naturalistic observation: observing behavior in natural dependent/independent variables
setting, without the person knowing
Accurate/valid results Random sample: subset of a larger
Difficult to set up and control, problem: observer bias population in which every member has
an equal chance of getting selected
3. Survey / correlational design: list of questions to be
answered by research participants
Can collect info from more people Can be generalized
2
Used when manipulation of variables is not possible,
interested in pre-existing variables (to study the
relationship)
4. Experimental designs: used when researches want both
prediction and explanation
, Chapter 3 I
Nervous system
Two major subdivisions: Central nervous system (CNS) and the Definitions
peripheral nervous system ( PNS)
CentraI nervous system: Comprised of
The PNS is divided into the somatic nervous system and the the brain and spinal cord Center of
autonomic nervous system both, receiving and sending commands
The somatic nervous system consists of efferent and afferent Peripheral nervous system: Made up of
fibers nerves, carries messages back and
forth between CNS and muscles,
The autonomic nervous system is subdivided into sympathetic organs, senses
and parasympathetic nervous system
Somatic nervous system: it consists of
motor neurons and sensory neurons,
Somatic nervous system carrying instructions from and to the
CNS
Efferent fibers: motor neurons, carrying instructions from the
CNS to the muscles Automatic nervous system: controls
our internal organs and glands and it's
Afferent fibers (afferent=arrive): sensory neurons, carrying outside the realm of voluntary control.
information to the CNS
Homeostasis: state of equilibrium,or
balance in which biological conditions
Autonomic nervous system (such as body's temperature) are at
I
optimal levels.
Sympathetic nervous system: prepares the body for stress-
related activities, so energy is shifted to go to organs that are
automatically activated - flight or fight mode
Parasympathetic nervous system: returning the body to
routine. Brings the energy levels back to normal
>
Maintain body's homeostasis
, Neuron structure
A neurons outer surface is made up of semipermeable
·
Definitions
membrane (which allows molecules without an electrical charge
pass through and stops larger /highly charged ones) Membrane potential: the difference in
The nucleus is located in the soma
⑨
charge across the neuronal membrane
The soma has branching extensions, dendrites where signals
①
it provides energy for the signal in
are received from other neurons neuronal communication.
The signals are transmitted by the axon, which ends at
B
multiple terminal buttons Resting potential: between signals, the
The terminal buttons contain synaptic resides that house
⑧
neuron membrane's potential is held
neurotransmitters (chemical messages of the nervous system in a state of readiness
Nodes of Ravien: natural gaps in the
myelin sheath
Neuronal communication
The neuron is surrounded by extracellular fluid and contains
.
intracellular fluid, which electrically differ. The neuronal
membrane keeps them separated
Electrical process
Neurons receive a signal at the dendrites &Small pores
or gates open to the neuronal membrane allowing Na ionst
more into the cell.
the internal charge becomes more positive
&
If the charge reaches a certain level, it's called the threshold
⑧
of excitation
At the peak of the spike, the sodium gates close and the
&
potassium gates open.
Positively charge potassium ions leave, the cell begins
①
repolarization, first it becomes more negative
(hyperpolarization) but then returns to resting potential
The electrical signal mores down the axon with the impulses
⑧
jumping in a leapfrog between the nodes of Ravier.
⑧
The action potential moves all the way down the axon, until
reaching the terminal buttons
Process of scientific research
Definitions
Deductive reasoning: ideas are tested in the real world
Inductive reasoning: real-world observations lead to new ideas Inter-rater reliability: a measure of
reliability that assesses the
Hypotheses or general premise consistency of observations by
Inductive Deductive different observers
reasoning reasoning
Empirical observations Variable: smth that varies across
human beings and can be measured
( tall, old, .... )
Independent variable: manipulated or
Research methods controlled by experimenter
1. Clinical or case studies: focus on one person or just a few Dependent variable: the one we want
individuals and really study them in depth usually studied to explain
the individuals have a rare characteristic)
7 Hard to generalize Third variable/confound: another
variable, that can influence both
2. Naturalistic observation: observing behavior in natural dependent/independent variables
setting, without the person knowing
Accurate/valid results Random sample: subset of a larger
Difficult to set up and control, problem: observer bias population in which every member has
an equal chance of getting selected
3. Survey / correlational design: list of questions to be
answered by research participants
Can collect info from more people Can be generalized
2
Used when manipulation of variables is not possible,
interested in pre-existing variables (to study the
relationship)
4. Experimental designs: used when researches want both
prediction and explanation
, Chapter 3 I
Nervous system
Two major subdivisions: Central nervous system (CNS) and the Definitions
peripheral nervous system ( PNS)
CentraI nervous system: Comprised of
The PNS is divided into the somatic nervous system and the the brain and spinal cord Center of
autonomic nervous system both, receiving and sending commands
The somatic nervous system consists of efferent and afferent Peripheral nervous system: Made up of
fibers nerves, carries messages back and
forth between CNS and muscles,
The autonomic nervous system is subdivided into sympathetic organs, senses
and parasympathetic nervous system
Somatic nervous system: it consists of
motor neurons and sensory neurons,
Somatic nervous system carrying instructions from and to the
CNS
Efferent fibers: motor neurons, carrying instructions from the
CNS to the muscles Automatic nervous system: controls
our internal organs and glands and it's
Afferent fibers (afferent=arrive): sensory neurons, carrying outside the realm of voluntary control.
information to the CNS
Homeostasis: state of equilibrium,or
balance in which biological conditions
Autonomic nervous system (such as body's temperature) are at
I
optimal levels.
Sympathetic nervous system: prepares the body for stress-
related activities, so energy is shifted to go to organs that are
automatically activated - flight or fight mode
Parasympathetic nervous system: returning the body to
routine. Brings the energy levels back to normal
>
Maintain body's homeostasis
, Neuron structure
A neurons outer surface is made up of semipermeable
·
Definitions
membrane (which allows molecules without an electrical charge
pass through and stops larger /highly charged ones) Membrane potential: the difference in
The nucleus is located in the soma
⑨
charge across the neuronal membrane
The soma has branching extensions, dendrites where signals
①
it provides energy for the signal in
are received from other neurons neuronal communication.
The signals are transmitted by the axon, which ends at
B
multiple terminal buttons Resting potential: between signals, the
The terminal buttons contain synaptic resides that house
⑧
neuron membrane's potential is held
neurotransmitters (chemical messages of the nervous system in a state of readiness
Nodes of Ravien: natural gaps in the
myelin sheath
Neuronal communication
The neuron is surrounded by extracellular fluid and contains
.
intracellular fluid, which electrically differ. The neuronal
membrane keeps them separated
Electrical process
Neurons receive a signal at the dendrites &Small pores
or gates open to the neuronal membrane allowing Na ionst
more into the cell.
the internal charge becomes more positive
&
If the charge reaches a certain level, it's called the threshold
⑧
of excitation
At the peak of the spike, the sodium gates close and the
&
potassium gates open.
Positively charge potassium ions leave, the cell begins
①
repolarization, first it becomes more negative
(hyperpolarization) but then returns to resting potential
The electrical signal mores down the axon with the impulses
⑧
jumping in a leapfrog between the nodes of Ravier.
⑧
The action potential moves all the way down the axon, until
reaching the terminal buttons
