POLITICAL RETHORIC
Inhoudsopgave
CLASS 1: INTRODUCTION................................................................................4
IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL RETHORIC.......................................................................................4
WHAT IS RHETORIC?............................................................................................................. 4
POLITICAL RETHORIC............................................................................................................. 5
Diverse research Field.................................................................................................. 5
Practicalities................................................................................................................. 6
RHETORIC, A CONTESTED NOTION............................................................................................ 7
Rhetoric was central to ancient democracy..................................................................8
PLATO................................................................................................................................ 8
ARISTOTLE.......................................................................................................................... 9
CICERO............................................................................................................................ 10
RHETORIC DIMINISHED WHEN MODERN STATE EMERGED.............................................................10
HOBBES........................................................................................................................... 10
ROUSSEAU........................................................................................................................ 11
POLITICS VS. THE POLITICAL.................................................................................................. 12
SITUATING RHETORIC.......................................................................................................... 12
EXAMPLE QUESTION EXAM.................................................................................................... 13
CLASS 2: CLASSICAL RETHORIC – DISCOVERY AND ARRANGEMENT..................13
OCCASIONS OF SPEECH....................................................................................................... 13
THE ISSUE........................................................................................................................ 14
CANONS OF SPEECH............................................................................................................ 15
Discovery of the argument (ethos – pathos – logos)...................................................16
Arrangement of the argument....................................................................................19
EXAMPLE QUESTION EXAM.................................................................................................... 21
CLASS 3: CLASSICAL RHETORIC – STYLE AND DELIVERY RHETORICAL POLITICAL
ANALYSIS..................................................................................................... 23
ANCIENT RHETORICAL CLASSIFICATIONS AND TECHNIQUES:..........................................................23
Style........................................................................................................................... 23
Delivery...................................................................................................................... 27
RHETORICAL POLITICAL ANALYSIS........................................................................................... 28
Focus on “ideas” (RPA)...............................................................................................29
Question of ‘agency’ (RPA)......................................................................................... 29
How to do rhetorical political analysis? (RPA).............................................................30
EXAMPLE QUESTION EXAM.................................................................................................... 30
Example RPA 1: Speech Zelensky..............................................................................30
Example RPA 2: Inaugural speecH Kennedy...............................................................31
LECTURE 4: MASS MEDIA & RHETORIC...........................................................32
THE MEDIATIZATION OF POLITICS........................................................................................... 32
Ambiguous role: What is the primary goal of mass media?........................................32
What is news?............................................................................................................ 33
why do politicians adapt?...........................................................................................34
1
, THE RHETORIC OF POLITICIANS.............................................................................................. 34
THE RHETORIC OF MASS MEDIA............................................................................................. 36
A) Media and cultural studies.....................................................................................36
B) Television news as rhetorical genre.......................................................................36
C) Episodic Vs thematic framing.................................................................................38
MEDIA: CURSE OR BLESSING FOR POLITICAL RHETORIC?.............................................................40
CLASS 5: NEGATIVE POLITICAL SPEECHES......................................................40
DEFINITION NEGATIVITY....................................................................................................... 41
WHY ARE POLITICIANS NEGATIVE AND UNCIVIL?........................................................................41
ARE ALL POLITICIANS EQUALLY NEGATIVE AND UNCIVIL?.............................................................42
Strategy vs personality..............................................................................................42
Is negativity communication on the rise?...................................................................42
CLASS 6: EMOTIONS & REASON....................................................................43
EMOTIONS IN RHETORIC: ANTAGONISTIC TO REASON?................................................................43
Democracy, an emotional business............................................................................43
Deliberative democracy.............................................................................................43
Exercise...................................................................................................................... 45
Neuroscience.............................................................................................................. 45
Example..................................................................................................................... 46
Fear >< Enthusiasm appeals.....................................................................................47
Emotional appeal of family metapHors.......................................................................48
MOTIVATED REASONING....................................................................................................... 48
Example: Motivated reasoning among politicians......................................................49
EMOTIONAL RHETORIC: CURSE OR BLESSING?...........................................................................51
CLASS 7: THE RHETORIC OF PROTEST: STREET PROTEST AS COMMUNICATIVE
ACTS AND ITS EFFECTS (GUESTLECTURE).......................................................52
EXAMPLES: PERSUASIVE POLITICAL RHETORIC..........................................................................52
Slogans...................................................................................................................... 52
Exercise...................................................................................................................... 52
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS........................................................................................................... 53
PROTEST IMPACT: A POLITICAL COMMUNICATION FRAMEWORK......................................................53
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PERSUATION.................................................................................54
WUNC as protest rhetoric........................................................................................... 54
EMPIRICAL STUDIES: “WUNC IS RHETORIC”..............................................................................55
Experiment 1: Protest and general citizens................................................................55
Experiment 2: BLM >< Illigal immigration..................................................................55
CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................... 56
CLASS 8: POPULIST RHETORIC.......................................................................57
WHAT IS POPULISM?........................................................................................................... 57
What are your associations with populist rhetoric?....................................................57
Populism as an ideology.............................................................................................57
Diversity of populism.................................................................................................. 57
Example..................................................................................................................... 58
STYLE ELEMENTS OF POPULIST RHETORIC................................................................................58
Populism as a communication style...........................................................................58
The people as a rhetorical construct..........................................................................59
Style elements of populist rhetoric.............................................................................59
Patriotism/Invoking the heartland..............................................................................59
2
, Crisis rhetoric............................................................................................................. 60
POPULIST RHETORIC, SIMPLISTIC RHETORIC?.............................................................................60
Absolutism................................................................................................................. 60
Colloquial language.................................................................................................... 60
Emotionalization/negativism......................................................................................60
Intimization................................................................................................................ 60
Exercise on populist rhetoric......................................................................................61
A very different example............................................................................................61
The use of populist style elements.............................................................................61
Who uses populist rhetoric?.......................................................................................62
On what channels do politicians go populist?.............................................................62
Populist rhetoric, simplistic rhetoric?..........................................................................62
Example question exam............................................................................................. 63
CLASS 9: GENDER EN RHETORIC....................................................................64
GENDER INEQUALITY IN POLITICAL RHETORIC............................................................................64
History of gendered speech.......................................................................................64
More politicians are female than before…..................................................................64
… But no equality yet in parliament…........................................................................64
…. Nor in the media................................................................................................... 64
Politics is not gender neutral......................................................................................65
Difficulties for female politicans.................................................................................66
The remarkable case of Jacinda Ardern......................................................................66
FEMINISM AND RHETORIC..................................................................................................... 67
Exercise...................................................................................................................... 68
GENDER ROLES AS A MEANS TO PERSUADE..............................................................................69
CLASS 10: EXAM PREPERATION.....................................................................69
3
, CLASS 1: INTRODUCTION
IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL RETHORIC
§ No politics without persuasion
§ Reason: uncertainty
§ Persuasion by speech vs. persuasion by force
§ Persuasion is “a symbolic process in which communicators try to convince other people to
change their own attitudes or behaviors regarding an issue through the transmission of a
message in an atmosphere of free choice” (Perloff, 2020, p. 24)
§ ”Democracy . . . is distinguished as a form of governance by the extent of persuasion relative
to coercion” (Mutz, Sniderman & Brody, 1996)
§ The fundamental political skill?
Politics want to persuade us, influence us. This is very important, because politics rests on uncertainty. There is
discussion about what problems are: is inequality a problem? How do we archieve the goals?
The definition of persuasion is not as short as “people getting to do something”. It will happen through force or
communication, by speech. By speech is more powerful, because if you persuade by power, they just have to
obey you. By speech, they are not obligated to, but you really influence them. If we have free choice, and we
then make a choice for obeying someone, it’s very powerful. You could say that political rethoric is the most
fundamental act to achieve, so you can be a good politician.
WHAT IS RHETORIC?
§ < Greek ‘retoriketekhne’
§ Rhetor = speaker
§ Tekhne = art
§ Studying rhetoric = learning the practical skills of persuasion
§ Studying rhetoric = studying the persuasiveness of speech
§ Not limited to spoken word (oratory)
§ Written word
§ Visuals
Rhetoric is the art of speaking. You can learn the practical skills of persuasion, but we will study the
persuasiveness of speech. Rhetoric is not limited to spoken words. It can also be visuals and written word.
Rhetoric is the whole art of persuasion. It’s the whole staged communication. We will focus on the political
one.
4
Inhoudsopgave
CLASS 1: INTRODUCTION................................................................................4
IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL RETHORIC.......................................................................................4
WHAT IS RHETORIC?............................................................................................................. 4
POLITICAL RETHORIC............................................................................................................. 5
Diverse research Field.................................................................................................. 5
Practicalities................................................................................................................. 6
RHETORIC, A CONTESTED NOTION............................................................................................ 7
Rhetoric was central to ancient democracy..................................................................8
PLATO................................................................................................................................ 8
ARISTOTLE.......................................................................................................................... 9
CICERO............................................................................................................................ 10
RHETORIC DIMINISHED WHEN MODERN STATE EMERGED.............................................................10
HOBBES........................................................................................................................... 10
ROUSSEAU........................................................................................................................ 11
POLITICS VS. THE POLITICAL.................................................................................................. 12
SITUATING RHETORIC.......................................................................................................... 12
EXAMPLE QUESTION EXAM.................................................................................................... 13
CLASS 2: CLASSICAL RETHORIC – DISCOVERY AND ARRANGEMENT..................13
OCCASIONS OF SPEECH....................................................................................................... 13
THE ISSUE........................................................................................................................ 14
CANONS OF SPEECH............................................................................................................ 15
Discovery of the argument (ethos – pathos – logos)...................................................16
Arrangement of the argument....................................................................................19
EXAMPLE QUESTION EXAM.................................................................................................... 21
CLASS 3: CLASSICAL RHETORIC – STYLE AND DELIVERY RHETORICAL POLITICAL
ANALYSIS..................................................................................................... 23
ANCIENT RHETORICAL CLASSIFICATIONS AND TECHNIQUES:..........................................................23
Style........................................................................................................................... 23
Delivery...................................................................................................................... 27
RHETORICAL POLITICAL ANALYSIS........................................................................................... 28
Focus on “ideas” (RPA)...............................................................................................29
Question of ‘agency’ (RPA)......................................................................................... 29
How to do rhetorical political analysis? (RPA).............................................................30
EXAMPLE QUESTION EXAM.................................................................................................... 30
Example RPA 1: Speech Zelensky..............................................................................30
Example RPA 2: Inaugural speecH Kennedy...............................................................31
LECTURE 4: MASS MEDIA & RHETORIC...........................................................32
THE MEDIATIZATION OF POLITICS........................................................................................... 32
Ambiguous role: What is the primary goal of mass media?........................................32
What is news?............................................................................................................ 33
why do politicians adapt?...........................................................................................34
1
, THE RHETORIC OF POLITICIANS.............................................................................................. 34
THE RHETORIC OF MASS MEDIA............................................................................................. 36
A) Media and cultural studies.....................................................................................36
B) Television news as rhetorical genre.......................................................................36
C) Episodic Vs thematic framing.................................................................................38
MEDIA: CURSE OR BLESSING FOR POLITICAL RHETORIC?.............................................................40
CLASS 5: NEGATIVE POLITICAL SPEECHES......................................................40
DEFINITION NEGATIVITY....................................................................................................... 41
WHY ARE POLITICIANS NEGATIVE AND UNCIVIL?........................................................................41
ARE ALL POLITICIANS EQUALLY NEGATIVE AND UNCIVIL?.............................................................42
Strategy vs personality..............................................................................................42
Is negativity communication on the rise?...................................................................42
CLASS 6: EMOTIONS & REASON....................................................................43
EMOTIONS IN RHETORIC: ANTAGONISTIC TO REASON?................................................................43
Democracy, an emotional business............................................................................43
Deliberative democracy.............................................................................................43
Exercise...................................................................................................................... 45
Neuroscience.............................................................................................................. 45
Example..................................................................................................................... 46
Fear >< Enthusiasm appeals.....................................................................................47
Emotional appeal of family metapHors.......................................................................48
MOTIVATED REASONING....................................................................................................... 48
Example: Motivated reasoning among politicians......................................................49
EMOTIONAL RHETORIC: CURSE OR BLESSING?...........................................................................51
CLASS 7: THE RHETORIC OF PROTEST: STREET PROTEST AS COMMUNICATIVE
ACTS AND ITS EFFECTS (GUESTLECTURE).......................................................52
EXAMPLES: PERSUASIVE POLITICAL RHETORIC..........................................................................52
Slogans...................................................................................................................... 52
Exercise...................................................................................................................... 52
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS........................................................................................................... 53
PROTEST IMPACT: A POLITICAL COMMUNICATION FRAMEWORK......................................................53
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PERSUATION.................................................................................54
WUNC as protest rhetoric........................................................................................... 54
EMPIRICAL STUDIES: “WUNC IS RHETORIC”..............................................................................55
Experiment 1: Protest and general citizens................................................................55
Experiment 2: BLM >< Illigal immigration..................................................................55
CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................... 56
CLASS 8: POPULIST RHETORIC.......................................................................57
WHAT IS POPULISM?........................................................................................................... 57
What are your associations with populist rhetoric?....................................................57
Populism as an ideology.............................................................................................57
Diversity of populism.................................................................................................. 57
Example..................................................................................................................... 58
STYLE ELEMENTS OF POPULIST RHETORIC................................................................................58
Populism as a communication style...........................................................................58
The people as a rhetorical construct..........................................................................59
Style elements of populist rhetoric.............................................................................59
Patriotism/Invoking the heartland..............................................................................59
2
, Crisis rhetoric............................................................................................................. 60
POPULIST RHETORIC, SIMPLISTIC RHETORIC?.............................................................................60
Absolutism................................................................................................................. 60
Colloquial language.................................................................................................... 60
Emotionalization/negativism......................................................................................60
Intimization................................................................................................................ 60
Exercise on populist rhetoric......................................................................................61
A very different example............................................................................................61
The use of populist style elements.............................................................................61
Who uses populist rhetoric?.......................................................................................62
On what channels do politicians go populist?.............................................................62
Populist rhetoric, simplistic rhetoric?..........................................................................62
Example question exam............................................................................................. 63
CLASS 9: GENDER EN RHETORIC....................................................................64
GENDER INEQUALITY IN POLITICAL RHETORIC............................................................................64
History of gendered speech.......................................................................................64
More politicians are female than before…..................................................................64
… But no equality yet in parliament…........................................................................64
…. Nor in the media................................................................................................... 64
Politics is not gender neutral......................................................................................65
Difficulties for female politicans.................................................................................66
The remarkable case of Jacinda Ardern......................................................................66
FEMINISM AND RHETORIC..................................................................................................... 67
Exercise...................................................................................................................... 68
GENDER ROLES AS A MEANS TO PERSUADE..............................................................................69
CLASS 10: EXAM PREPERATION.....................................................................69
3
, CLASS 1: INTRODUCTION
IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL RETHORIC
§ No politics without persuasion
§ Reason: uncertainty
§ Persuasion by speech vs. persuasion by force
§ Persuasion is “a symbolic process in which communicators try to convince other people to
change their own attitudes or behaviors regarding an issue through the transmission of a
message in an atmosphere of free choice” (Perloff, 2020, p. 24)
§ ”Democracy . . . is distinguished as a form of governance by the extent of persuasion relative
to coercion” (Mutz, Sniderman & Brody, 1996)
§ The fundamental political skill?
Politics want to persuade us, influence us. This is very important, because politics rests on uncertainty. There is
discussion about what problems are: is inequality a problem? How do we archieve the goals?
The definition of persuasion is not as short as “people getting to do something”. It will happen through force or
communication, by speech. By speech is more powerful, because if you persuade by power, they just have to
obey you. By speech, they are not obligated to, but you really influence them. If we have free choice, and we
then make a choice for obeying someone, it’s very powerful. You could say that political rethoric is the most
fundamental act to achieve, so you can be a good politician.
WHAT IS RHETORIC?
§ < Greek ‘retoriketekhne’
§ Rhetor = speaker
§ Tekhne = art
§ Studying rhetoric = learning the practical skills of persuasion
§ Studying rhetoric = studying the persuasiveness of speech
§ Not limited to spoken word (oratory)
§ Written word
§ Visuals
Rhetoric is the art of speaking. You can learn the practical skills of persuasion, but we will study the
persuasiveness of speech. Rhetoric is not limited to spoken words. It can also be visuals and written word.
Rhetoric is the whole art of persuasion. It’s the whole staged communication. We will focus on the political
one.
4
