Introduction to Disaster Preparedness

Aim and audience This module provides a common starting point for understanding and discussing disasters, disaster management, and disaster preparedness as part of a National Society's mission, and discusses the potential scope of disaster preparedness measures. This module is appropriate for anyone who has general responsibilities for disaster management and programme implementation. Non-technical personnel interested in acquiring a better understanding of disaster preparedness and the strategies and measures that may be implemented as part of a preparedness plan can also benefit from reading this module. Main points • how disaster preparedness fits into the work of the International Federation and National Societies • the overarching aims and objectives of disaster preparedness • definitions of the terms hazards, disasters and vulnerability • identification of different types of disasters • the scope of disaster preparedness measures • the concept of community-based disaster 1. Overview of disaster preparedness 1.1 Disaster preparedness and the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement The purpose of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, as embodied in its Constitution and the principle of humanity, is to prevent and alleviate human suffering wherever it may be found, to protect life and health and ensure respect for the human being. Disaster preparedness fits within this overarching purpose and has been identified in IFRC's Strategy 2010, as one of the "core areas" that National Societies should prioritise and integrate into their overall programming efforts. Many people and agencies take part in emergency response operations including local populations and community-based organisations, Civil Defence and national emergency structures, fire brigades, Red Crescent/Red Cross Societies, international agencies, NGOs and others. The International Federation and National Societies need to recognise that disaster preparedness, particularly in terms of post-disaster response, is primarily a government responsibility but that the National Society, as an auxiliary of the public authorities, can also make an important contribution. Therefore, National Societies should I June 2000 6/20 Disaster Preparedness Training Programme International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies communicate and coordinate their plans with those of other government agencies and nongovernmental organisations involved in disaster preparedness and response. This will improve planning, reduce duplication of efforts, make plans more realistic and increase the overall effectiveness of NS disaster preparedness and response efforts. 1.2 Aims and objectives of disaster preparedness Disaster preparedness refers to measures taken to prepare for and reduce the effects of disasters. That is, to predict and—where possible—prevent them, mitigate their impact on vulnerable populations, and respond to and effectively cope with their consequences. Disaster preparedness is best viewed from a broad perspective and is more appropriately conceived of as a goal, rather than as a specialised programme or stage that immediately precedes disaster response. Disaster preparedness is a continuous and integrated process resulting from a wide range of activities and resources rather than from a distinct sectoral activity by itself. It requires the contributions of many different areas—ranging from training and logistics, to health care to institutional development. Viewed from this broad perspective, disaster preparedness encompasses the following objectives: • Increasing the efficiency, effectiveness and impact of disaster emergency response mechanisms at the community, national and Federation level. This includes:
the development and regular testing of warning systems (linked to forecasting systems) and plans for evacuation or other measures to be taken during a disaster alert period to minimise potential loss of life and physical damage
the education and training of officials and the population at risk
the training of first-aid and emergency response teams
the establishment of emergency response policies, standards, organisational arrangements and operational plans to be followed after a disaster • Strengthening community-based disaster preparedness through National Society programmes for the community or through direct support of the community's own activity. This could include educating, preparing and supporting local populations and communities in their everyday efforts to reduce risks and prepare their own local response mechanisms to address disaster emergency situations. • Developing activities that are useful for both addressing everyday risks that communities face and for responding to disaster situations—for example, health, first aid or social welfare programmes that have components useful for disaster reduction and response. 2. Hazards, disasters and vulnerability The following terms and their definitions are important to understanding disaster preparedness. A disaster is an extreme disruption of the functioning of a society that causes widespread human, material, or environmental losses that exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using only its own resources. Events such as earthquakes, floods, and cyclones, by themselves, are not considered disasters. Rather, they become disasters when they I June 2000 7/20 Disaster Preparedness Training Programme International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies adversely and seriously affect human life, livelihoods and property. Disaster preparedness, therefore, seeks to prepare for and reduce these adverse effects. A hazard, on the other hand, refers to the potential occurrence, in a specific time period and geographic area, of a natural phenomenon that may adversely affect human life, property or activity to the extent of causing a disaster. A hazard occurrence (the earthquake, the flood, or the cyclone, for example) becomes a disaster when it results in injuries, loss of life and livelihoods, displacement and homelessness and/or destruction and damage to infrastructure and property. A cyclone that surges over an uninhabited island does not result in a disaster; however, it would be a disaster if it hit the populated coast of Bangladesh and caused extensive loss of lives and property. Structural or physical vulnerability is the extent to which a structure is likely to be damaged or disrupted by a hazard event. For example, a wood frame house with largeheaded, roofing nails, rafter tie-downs, anchor bolts and a solid foundation is less vulnerable structurally to severe cyclone winds than a similar-looking house which does not have these structural details. Human vulnerability is the relative lack of capacity of a person or community to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a hazard. Factors that increase human vulnerability to disasters include rapid urbanisation, population growth, and lack of knowledge about how to effectively resist the effects of disasters and poverty. Of all the factors, poverty is perhaps at the root of what makes most people vulnerable to the impact of most hazards. GeoHazards International (GHI), a non-profit organisation dedicated to the reduction of death and injury caused by earthquakes in the world's most vulnerable communities has estimated that in the 20th century, four of every five deaths caused by earthquakes occurred in developing countries. The 1988 Armenian earthquake and the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in Northern California were nearly equivalent in their magnitudes and in the number of people in the affected regions, but the results were far different—63 people died in California while at least 25,000 died in Armenia. This can be explained in large part by the relatively higher levels of human and structural vulnerability to earthquakes in Armenia. Source: GHI website Human capacities are the qualities and resources an individual or community can use and develop to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a hazard. According to UNHCR's People-Oriented-Planning Framework, human capacities include material resources (i.e. food, animals, cash, tools); social and organisational capacities (i.e. leadership, previous organising experience, community based organisations and networks); and attitudinal capacities (i.e. beliefs, motivations, work values, ideas, creativity, efficacy) (Anderson 1994). All people and all communities have resources and capacities and therefore a foundation for preparedness and risk reduction that National Societies can support and help build. 3. Disaster classifications There are different ways to classify disasters. Classifications matter because preparedness, response and risk reduction measures as well as the specialists and agencies involved depend on the type of disaster. Disasters are often classified according to their cause, their I June 2000 8/20 Disaster Preparedness Training Programme International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies speed of onset (sudden or slow) and whether or not they are due to "acts of nature" or "acts of humans"—a classification which is often contested, because it is argued that human actions, in fact, also precipitate natural disasters. 3.1 Hazards causing disasters Disasters classified according to cause are named after the hazard which results in the disastrous social and economic consequences. Thus, this classification includes earthquakes, floods, cyclones, tornadoes, landslides, mud flows, droughts, pest and insect infestations, chemical explosions, etc. 3.2 Speed of onset The speed of the disaster's onset is another way to distinguish between disasters— and the types of responses that may be required. A rapid onset disaster refers to an event or hazard that occurs suddenly, with little warning, taking the lives of people, and destroying economic structures and material resources. Rapid onset disasters may be caused by earthquakes, floods, storm winds, tornadoes, or mud flows. The earthquake that struck western Turkey in August 1999 is one such example. (See insert at right.) Earthquake in Turkey In the second half of 1999, two massive earthquakes in less than three months struck north-western Turkey, the country's most densely populated region and industrial heartland. The first, on 17 August 1999 at 03h02 local time, measured between 7.4 and 7.8 on the Richter scale and lasted 45 seconds. Izmit, an industrial city of one million in western Turkey, was the nearest to the epicentre. The official death toll stands at over 17,100, with some 44,000 people injured, nearly 300,000 homes either damaged or collapsed, and more than 40,000 business premises similarly affected. On the day of the catastrophe, the Turkish government declared a state of emergency and requested international assistance. The disaster was followed by more than 1,300 after-shocks, culminating in the second quake at 18h57 on 12 November 1999 which rated 7.2 on the Richter scale and shook Düzce and Kaynasli counties in the north-western province of Bolu, some 100 kms to the east of Izmit. The jolt was felt both in Istanbul (some 260 kms to the west) and Ankara, the nation's capital, 300 kms to the east. According to the latest casualty figures, there is a confirmed death toll of 845, with nearly 5,000 people injured. Source: IFRC, Turkey: Earthquakes Situation Report no. 37, 14 Feb 2000. Slow onset disasters occur over time and slowly deteriorate a society's and a population's capacity to withstand the effects of the hazard or threat. Hazards causing these disaster conditions typically include droughts, famines, environmental degradation, desertification, deforestation and pest infestation. The El Niño phenomenon is an example of one such disaster. (See box insert on the next page). I June 2000 9/20 Disaster Preparedness Training Programme International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies The El Niño phenomenon The climate phenomenon of "El Niño" severely affected several countries, with considerable impact in Asia and Central/South America since April 1997. Floods inflicted 41 countries, while 22 others were hit by drought and two countries by major forest fires. El Niño had far reaching effects on crop production, national food situations, livestock and fish production, and forests and natural vegetation in several parts of the world, according to Mr. Abdur Rashid, Chief of FAO's Global Information and Early Warning System (GIEWS). In addition to livestock losses due to heavy rainfall and floods attributed to El Niño in eastern Africa, ideal conditions developed to create an outbreak of animal and human diseases. For example, Rift Valley Fever (notably in Kenya, Somalia and Ethiopia) resulted in extensive deaths and illness, putting large parts of neighbouring countries at serious risk of the epidemic. Regarding its impact on fisheries, El Niño caused severe damage to the area off western South America, which is considered one of the richest fishing regions in the world, producing 12 to 20 percent of the world's total fish landings. One of the greatest El Niño-related threats to forests and natural vegetation was the increased risk of wildfires due to drought conditions. Source: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 31 Jul 1998. 3.3 Acts of nature or acts of humans Disasters are sometimes classified according to whether they are "natural" disasters, or "human-made" disasters. For example, disasters caused by floods, droughts, tidal waves and earth tremors are generally considered "natural disasters." Disasters caused by chemical or industrial accidents, environmental pollution, transport accidents and political unrest are classified as "human-made" or "human-caused" disasters since they are the direct result of human action. A more modern and social understanding of disasters, however, views this distinction as artificial since most disasters result from the actions or inaction of people and their corresponding political, social and economic structures. In other words, humans consciously or inadvertently create the social, political and economic conditions which lead to disasters. This happens by people living in ways that degrade their environment, developing and overpopulating urban centres, or creating and perpetuating political, social and economic systems that result in unequal access to land and resources. Communities and populations forced to settle in areas susceptible to the impact of a raging river or the violent tremors of the earth are placed in situations of high vulnerability because of their destitute economic condition and their relative lack of political power. 4. Disaster preparedness measures Disaster preparedness, as already stated, is a broad concept that describes a set of measures that minimises the adverse effects of a hazard including loss of life and property and disruption of livelihoods. Disaster preparedness is achieved partially through readiness measures that expedite emergency response, rehabilitation and recovery and result in rapid, timely and targeted assistance. It is also achieved through community-based approaches and activities that build the capacities of people and communities to cope with and minimise the effects of a disaster on their lives.