Introductie ............................................................................................................................. 5
Hoofdstuk 1: Onderzoeksonderwerpen en -vragen................................................................ 6
1.1 Onderzoeksonderwerpen ........................................................................................ 6
1.2 Onderzoeksvragen .................................................................................................. 7
1.2.1 Onderzoeksvragen met een gedeeltelijk, voorlopig of twijfelachtig antwoord .... 7
1.2.2 Onderzoeksvragen zonder antwoord................................................................ 7
1.2.3 Totaal nieuwe onderzoeksvragen ..................................................................... 8
1.2.4 Het formuleren van onderzoeksvragen ............................................................. 8
Hoofdstuk 2: Niet-experimenteel onderzoek .......................................................................... 9
2.1 Onderzoek: experimenteel en niet-experimenteel ................................................... 9
2.2 Overzicht van verschillende types van niet-experimenteel onderzoek ..................... 9
2.2.1 Ex post facto research...................................................................................... 9
2.2.2 Normeringsonderzoek .....................................................................................10
2.2.2.2 Het trekken van een steekproef ................................................................10
2.2.2.3 De grootte van de steekproef ...................................................................11
2.2.3 De vergelijking van standaardgroepen ............................................................11
2.2.4 Enquêteonderzoek ..........................................................................................12
2.2.4.1 Praktische uitvoering ................................................................................12
2.2.5 De gevalstudie ................................................................................................12
2.2.6 Literatuurstudie ...............................................................................................12
2.2.6.1 Inleiding....................................................................................................12
2.2.6.2 Traditionele literatuurstudie ......................................................................13
2.2.6.3 Systematische review...............................................................................14
2.2.6.4 Meta-analyse ...........................................................................................15
Hoofdstuk 3: Experimenteel onderzoek ................................................................................16
3.1 Experimenteel onderzoek, interne validiteit en buitenexperimentele factoren .........16
3.2 Buitenexperimentele factoren: een overzicht .........................................................16
3.2.1 History .............................................................................................................16
3.2.2 Rijping .............................................................................................................16
3.2.3 Testing ............................................................................................................16
3.2.4 Instrumentatie .................................................................................................16
3.2.5 Statistische regressie ......................................................................................17
3.2.6 Selectie ...........................................................................................................17
3.2.7 Perceptie van verschil tussen onderzoeksgroepen ..........................................17
3.2.8 Studie-uitval ....................................................................................................17
3.3 Onderzoeksdesign .................................................................................................17
3.4 De group design .....................................................................................................18
1
, 3.4.1 Het samenstellen van groepen ........................................................................18
3.4.1.1 Randomiseren ..........................................................................................18
3.4.1.2 Matchen ...................................................................................................18
3.4.2 Echt experimentele designs ............................................................................18
3.4.2.1 De pretest-posttest control group design ..................................................18
3.4.2.2 De posttest-only control group design ......................................................19
3.4.2.3 De Solomon four-group design .................................................................19
3.4.2.4 De multigroup pretest-posttest design ......................................................20
3.4.2.5 De multigroup posttest-only design ..........................................................20
3.4.2.6 De factoriële design .................................................................................20
3.4.2.7 Randomized blocks design ......................................................................21
3.4.3 Counterbalanced designs ................................................................................21
3.4.3.1 One-group single-treatment counterbalanced design ...............................21
3.4.3.2 De cross-over design ...............................................................................22
3.4.3.3 Complexe counterbalanced designs.........................................................22
3.4.3.4 Overdracht, plafond-effect en bodem-effect .............................................22
3.4.4 Quasi-experimentele designs ..........................................................................23
3.4.4.1 Tijdserie designs ......................................................................................23
3.4.4.2 De niet-equivalente control group design .................................................24
3.4.5 Pre-experimentele designs ..............................................................................24
3.4.5.1 De one-shot case study............................................................................24
3.4.5.2 De one-group pretest-posttest design ......................................................24
3.4.5.3 De static group comparison ......................................................................25
3.4.6 Overzicht groepsdesigns .................................................................................25
3.5 De single-subject design ........................................................................................25
3.5.1 Algemene kenmerken .....................................................................................25
3.5.2 De withdrawal design ......................................................................................26
3.5.2.1 De ABA design .........................................................................................26
3.5.2.2 De BAB design .........................................................................................26
3.5.2.3 De ABAB design ......................................................................................26
3.5.3 Reversal design ..............................................................................................27
3.5.4 De multiple baseline design.............................................................................27
3.5.5 Het evalueren van de resultaten ......................................................................28
3.5.6 Het probleem van de generalisatie ..................................................................28
3.5.6.1 Directe replicatie ......................................................................................28
3.5.6.2 Systematische replicatie...........................................................................28
3.5.7 Pre-experimentele single-subject design .........................................................29
2
,Hoofdstuk 4: Kwalitatief onderzoek.......................................................................................30
4.1 Definitie en kenmerken...........................................................................................30
4.2 Voordelen en beperkingen .....................................................................................30
4.3 Vormen van kwalitatief onderzoek ..........................................................................30
4.3.1 Casestudies ....................................................................................................30
4.3.2 Grounded theory .............................................................................................31
4.3.3 Etnografie........................................................................................................31
4.3.4 Converstation(al) analysis ...............................................................................31
4.3.5 Phenomenological analysis .............................................................................31
4.4 Mixed method research ..........................................................................................31
4.5 Uitgangspunten .....................................................................................................32
4.5.1 Data vormen steeds het vertrekpunt................................................................32
4.5.2 De context is cruciaal ......................................................................................33
4.5.3 Focus op het emic perspectief .........................................................................33
4.5.4 Onderzoek in de echte leefwereld van de participanten ..................................33
4.5.5 Thick description is onontbeerlijk .....................................................................33
4.5.6 De onderzoeker beïnvloedt .............................................................................34
4.5.7 Reflexiviteit is de belangrijke sleutel ................................................................34
4.6 Onderzoekscyclus .................................................................................................35
4.6.1 Onderzoeksvraag ............................................................................................35
4.6.2 Literatuurstudie ...............................................................................................35
4.6.3 Sampling .........................................................................................................36
4.6.4 Datacollectie ...................................................................................................36
4.6.4.1 Interviews .................................................................................................37
4.6.4.2 Observaties ..............................................................................................38
4.6.4.3 Documenten en beelden ..........................................................................39
4.6.4.4 Transcriptie ..............................................................................................40
4.6.5 Data-analyse ...................................................................................................40
4.6.6 Rapportering ...................................................................................................42
Hoofdstuk 5: Rapporteren van wetenschappelijk onderzoek.................................................43
5.1 Het schriftelijke onderzoeksverslag ........................................................................43
5.1.1 De opbouw van een artikel ..............................................................................43
5.1.1.1 Titel ..........................................................................................................43
5.1.1.2 Auteur(s) ..................................................................................................43
5.1.1.3 Abstract ....................................................................................................44
5.1.1.4 Inleiding....................................................................................................44
5.1.1.5 Methode ...................................................................................................44
3
, 5.1.1.6 Resultaten ................................................................................................44
5.1.1.7 Discussie..................................................................................................45
5.1.1.8 Acknowledg(e)ment(s) .............................................................................45
5.1.1.9 Referenties...............................................................................................45
5.1.1.10 Appendix ..................................................................................................45
5.1.2 Van manuscript tot publicatie ..........................................................................45
5.2 Het mondelinge onderzoeksverslag .......................................................................47
5.3 Schriftelijk of mondeling?........................................................................................47
Hoofdstuk 6: Evalueren van wetenschappelijk onderzoek ....................................................48
6.1 Evaluatie van het onderzoek zelf ............................................................................48
6.1.1 Algemene vragen die nuttig kunnen zijn bij het evalueren van een artikel .......48
6.1.2 Vragen bij een systematische review en meta-analyse ...................................49
6.1.3 Vragen bij een kwalitatief onderzoek ...............................................................49
6.2 Evaluatie van de wijze van rapportering .................................................................49
6.3 Tips en tricks ..........................................................................................................49
Hoofdstuk 7: Ethische aspecten van wetenschappelijk onderzoek .......................................50
7.1 Ethiek en logopedisch onderzoek ...........................................................................50
7.2 Ethiek en onderzoekers ..........................................................................................51
Hoofdstuk 8: Wetenschappelijke integriteit ...........................................................................52
8 ..................................................................................................................................52
8.1 Wat is integriteit? ....................................................................................................52
8.2 Wat is professionele integriteit? ..............................................................................52
8.2.1 Logopedisten ..................................................................................................52
8.2.2 Audiologen ......................................................................................................52
8.2.3 Onderzoeker ...................................................................................................52
8.3 Wat is wetenschappelijke integriteit? ......................................................................52
8.4 Waarom is wetenschappelijke integriteit belangrijk? ...............................................53
8.5 Wie is verantwoordelijk? .........................................................................................53
8.6 Het brede spectrum van onderzoeksgedrag ...........................................................54
8.6.1 Verantwoord onderzoeksgedrag......................................................................54
8.6.2 Onaanvaardbaar gedrag .................................................................................55
8.6.3 Andere onaanvaardbare onderzoekspraktijken ...............................................55
8.7 Literatuur ................................................................................................................55
4
Hoofdstuk 1: Onderzoeksonderwerpen en -vragen................................................................ 6
1.1 Onderzoeksonderwerpen ........................................................................................ 6
1.2 Onderzoeksvragen .................................................................................................. 7
1.2.1 Onderzoeksvragen met een gedeeltelijk, voorlopig of twijfelachtig antwoord .... 7
1.2.2 Onderzoeksvragen zonder antwoord................................................................ 7
1.2.3 Totaal nieuwe onderzoeksvragen ..................................................................... 8
1.2.4 Het formuleren van onderzoeksvragen ............................................................. 8
Hoofdstuk 2: Niet-experimenteel onderzoek .......................................................................... 9
2.1 Onderzoek: experimenteel en niet-experimenteel ................................................... 9
2.2 Overzicht van verschillende types van niet-experimenteel onderzoek ..................... 9
2.2.1 Ex post facto research...................................................................................... 9
2.2.2 Normeringsonderzoek .....................................................................................10
2.2.2.2 Het trekken van een steekproef ................................................................10
2.2.2.3 De grootte van de steekproef ...................................................................11
2.2.3 De vergelijking van standaardgroepen ............................................................11
2.2.4 Enquêteonderzoek ..........................................................................................12
2.2.4.1 Praktische uitvoering ................................................................................12
2.2.5 De gevalstudie ................................................................................................12
2.2.6 Literatuurstudie ...............................................................................................12
2.2.6.1 Inleiding....................................................................................................12
2.2.6.2 Traditionele literatuurstudie ......................................................................13
2.2.6.3 Systematische review...............................................................................14
2.2.6.4 Meta-analyse ...........................................................................................15
Hoofdstuk 3: Experimenteel onderzoek ................................................................................16
3.1 Experimenteel onderzoek, interne validiteit en buitenexperimentele factoren .........16
3.2 Buitenexperimentele factoren: een overzicht .........................................................16
3.2.1 History .............................................................................................................16
3.2.2 Rijping .............................................................................................................16
3.2.3 Testing ............................................................................................................16
3.2.4 Instrumentatie .................................................................................................16
3.2.5 Statistische regressie ......................................................................................17
3.2.6 Selectie ...........................................................................................................17
3.2.7 Perceptie van verschil tussen onderzoeksgroepen ..........................................17
3.2.8 Studie-uitval ....................................................................................................17
3.3 Onderzoeksdesign .................................................................................................17
3.4 De group design .....................................................................................................18
1
, 3.4.1 Het samenstellen van groepen ........................................................................18
3.4.1.1 Randomiseren ..........................................................................................18
3.4.1.2 Matchen ...................................................................................................18
3.4.2 Echt experimentele designs ............................................................................18
3.4.2.1 De pretest-posttest control group design ..................................................18
3.4.2.2 De posttest-only control group design ......................................................19
3.4.2.3 De Solomon four-group design .................................................................19
3.4.2.4 De multigroup pretest-posttest design ......................................................20
3.4.2.5 De multigroup posttest-only design ..........................................................20
3.4.2.6 De factoriële design .................................................................................20
3.4.2.7 Randomized blocks design ......................................................................21
3.4.3 Counterbalanced designs ................................................................................21
3.4.3.1 One-group single-treatment counterbalanced design ...............................21
3.4.3.2 De cross-over design ...............................................................................22
3.4.3.3 Complexe counterbalanced designs.........................................................22
3.4.3.4 Overdracht, plafond-effect en bodem-effect .............................................22
3.4.4 Quasi-experimentele designs ..........................................................................23
3.4.4.1 Tijdserie designs ......................................................................................23
3.4.4.2 De niet-equivalente control group design .................................................24
3.4.5 Pre-experimentele designs ..............................................................................24
3.4.5.1 De one-shot case study............................................................................24
3.4.5.2 De one-group pretest-posttest design ......................................................24
3.4.5.3 De static group comparison ......................................................................25
3.4.6 Overzicht groepsdesigns .................................................................................25
3.5 De single-subject design ........................................................................................25
3.5.1 Algemene kenmerken .....................................................................................25
3.5.2 De withdrawal design ......................................................................................26
3.5.2.1 De ABA design .........................................................................................26
3.5.2.2 De BAB design .........................................................................................26
3.5.2.3 De ABAB design ......................................................................................26
3.5.3 Reversal design ..............................................................................................27
3.5.4 De multiple baseline design.............................................................................27
3.5.5 Het evalueren van de resultaten ......................................................................28
3.5.6 Het probleem van de generalisatie ..................................................................28
3.5.6.1 Directe replicatie ......................................................................................28
3.5.6.2 Systematische replicatie...........................................................................28
3.5.7 Pre-experimentele single-subject design .........................................................29
2
,Hoofdstuk 4: Kwalitatief onderzoek.......................................................................................30
4.1 Definitie en kenmerken...........................................................................................30
4.2 Voordelen en beperkingen .....................................................................................30
4.3 Vormen van kwalitatief onderzoek ..........................................................................30
4.3.1 Casestudies ....................................................................................................30
4.3.2 Grounded theory .............................................................................................31
4.3.3 Etnografie........................................................................................................31
4.3.4 Converstation(al) analysis ...............................................................................31
4.3.5 Phenomenological analysis .............................................................................31
4.4 Mixed method research ..........................................................................................31
4.5 Uitgangspunten .....................................................................................................32
4.5.1 Data vormen steeds het vertrekpunt................................................................32
4.5.2 De context is cruciaal ......................................................................................33
4.5.3 Focus op het emic perspectief .........................................................................33
4.5.4 Onderzoek in de echte leefwereld van de participanten ..................................33
4.5.5 Thick description is onontbeerlijk .....................................................................33
4.5.6 De onderzoeker beïnvloedt .............................................................................34
4.5.7 Reflexiviteit is de belangrijke sleutel ................................................................34
4.6 Onderzoekscyclus .................................................................................................35
4.6.1 Onderzoeksvraag ............................................................................................35
4.6.2 Literatuurstudie ...............................................................................................35
4.6.3 Sampling .........................................................................................................36
4.6.4 Datacollectie ...................................................................................................36
4.6.4.1 Interviews .................................................................................................37
4.6.4.2 Observaties ..............................................................................................38
4.6.4.3 Documenten en beelden ..........................................................................39
4.6.4.4 Transcriptie ..............................................................................................40
4.6.5 Data-analyse ...................................................................................................40
4.6.6 Rapportering ...................................................................................................42
Hoofdstuk 5: Rapporteren van wetenschappelijk onderzoek.................................................43
5.1 Het schriftelijke onderzoeksverslag ........................................................................43
5.1.1 De opbouw van een artikel ..............................................................................43
5.1.1.1 Titel ..........................................................................................................43
5.1.1.2 Auteur(s) ..................................................................................................43
5.1.1.3 Abstract ....................................................................................................44
5.1.1.4 Inleiding....................................................................................................44
5.1.1.5 Methode ...................................................................................................44
3
, 5.1.1.6 Resultaten ................................................................................................44
5.1.1.7 Discussie..................................................................................................45
5.1.1.8 Acknowledg(e)ment(s) .............................................................................45
5.1.1.9 Referenties...............................................................................................45
5.1.1.10 Appendix ..................................................................................................45
5.1.2 Van manuscript tot publicatie ..........................................................................45
5.2 Het mondelinge onderzoeksverslag .......................................................................47
5.3 Schriftelijk of mondeling?........................................................................................47
Hoofdstuk 6: Evalueren van wetenschappelijk onderzoek ....................................................48
6.1 Evaluatie van het onderzoek zelf ............................................................................48
6.1.1 Algemene vragen die nuttig kunnen zijn bij het evalueren van een artikel .......48
6.1.2 Vragen bij een systematische review en meta-analyse ...................................49
6.1.3 Vragen bij een kwalitatief onderzoek ...............................................................49
6.2 Evaluatie van de wijze van rapportering .................................................................49
6.3 Tips en tricks ..........................................................................................................49
Hoofdstuk 7: Ethische aspecten van wetenschappelijk onderzoek .......................................50
7.1 Ethiek en logopedisch onderzoek ...........................................................................50
7.2 Ethiek en onderzoekers ..........................................................................................51
Hoofdstuk 8: Wetenschappelijke integriteit ...........................................................................52
8 ..................................................................................................................................52
8.1 Wat is integriteit? ....................................................................................................52
8.2 Wat is professionele integriteit? ..............................................................................52
8.2.1 Logopedisten ..................................................................................................52
8.2.2 Audiologen ......................................................................................................52
8.2.3 Onderzoeker ...................................................................................................52
8.3 Wat is wetenschappelijke integriteit? ......................................................................52
8.4 Waarom is wetenschappelijke integriteit belangrijk? ...............................................53
8.5 Wie is verantwoordelijk? .........................................................................................53
8.6 Het brede spectrum van onderzoeksgedrag ...........................................................54
8.6.1 Verantwoord onderzoeksgedrag......................................................................54
8.6.2 Onaanvaardbaar gedrag .................................................................................55
8.6.3 Andere onaanvaardbare onderzoekspraktijken ...............................................55
8.7 Literatuur ................................................................................................................55
4
