Chapter 2 Biography of a concept
Key concepts and concerns:
- emergence of global environmental concerns in the 1970s
‘Earth Day’-rallies in US and organisations Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace formed. Idea of
‘limits to growth’ has been controversial, because of belief that indefinite growth is still viable. Some
believe free economy malfunctions when there is limited growth.
- significance of Rachel Carson’s 1962 book Silent Spring
Discusses ecological impacts of inorganic pesticides. Sparked upsurge in ecological awareness → start
of ‘modern’ environmental movement.
- Brundtland Report (1987) defines sustainability and links the environmental and social dimensions
Gro Harlem Brundtland presented compelling overview of disturbing global trends. Causal link
between poverty and environmental degradation= poor people are most vulnerable to
environmental hazards and lack resources to implement nature conservation strategies.
- intragenerational and intergenerational equity
Intragenerational equity= equity of opportunity in the present
Intergenerational equity= ‘’ for future generations.
- outcomes of Rio Earth Summit of 1992
- Agenda 21 = action plan for environmental sustainable development.
- Local Agenda 21= devolving responsibilities to sub-national levels.
- Adoption of Climate Change Convention → Kyoto 1997 binding protocol on reducing greenhouse
gas emissions
- UN Convention of Biological Diversity
- Global Environment Facility (GEF), supports economically sustainable development (ESD) in
developing nations.
- strengths and weaknesses of global summits
Strengths: can contribute to finding solutions on a global scale; puts pressure on nation states to take
global challenges more seriously.
Weaknesses: non-binding outcomes thus lack of action taking; global forms of governance are weak
in relation to political power of nation states; narrow perceptions of ‘national interest’.
Montreal, 1987 = rapidly phasing out use of CFC gases that caused ozone hole > Montreal Protocol.
Kyoto climate summit, 1997 = aimed at reducing human-induced climate change. Probable enormous
economic/political ramification involved in reducing emission of greenhouse gases → undermined
political will and boycotting of the summit. Focussed on developing countries.
UN Millennium Summit in New York, 2000 = eight Millennium Development Goals → changed to 17
Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 at the follow-up UN summit.
Copenhagen, 2009 = laid foundations for bilateral negotiations between largest greenhouse gas-
emitting nations but is considered as a failure. Focussed on rapidly expanding economies.
Paris climate summit, 2015 = allowing each nation to set its own emission reduction targets.
- RMIT Principles of Sustainability
1. Acknowledge interconnections at all levels within the biosphere.
2. Acknowledge that there are limits to growth.
3. Remember that prevention is better than cure.
,4. Work to improve intragenerational equity.
5. Face up to the challenges of intergenerational equity.
6. Respect requisite diversity in both nature and culture.
7. Work for relocalisation with global connectedness.
8. Move from consumerism to quality of life goals.
9. Learn how to travel hopefully in a world of uncertainty.
Chapter 3 Consumption and consumerism
Key concepts and concerns:
- the rise of hyperconsumption
Development of ‘consumer capitalism’ in three phases:
1. Proliferation of standardised goods sold at low prices (1880-WO2)
2. Focus on rapid global increase in availability of consumer goods (WO2-1970s)
3. Focus on rapid expansion in the quantity of consumer goods ‘required’ by individuals to operate
effectively (1970s – now) = ‘hyperconsumption’. Driven by anxiety about not succeeding in life and
people’s believe that they can consume their way to happiness.
Hyperconsumption leads to:
- Environmental costs= unsustainable use of natural resources, loss of biodiversity, increasing
emissions of greenhouse gases.
- Social costs= rising economic costs, loss of social connectedness.
- Personal costs= stress associated with working hard to sustain high levels of consumption, feeling of
being on a ‘treadmill’ of never-ending consumption.
- individualism and cocooning
Non-work time is spent inside homes, using electronic devices to keep in touch with others → people
lose sight of their location in the world, making it harder to be conscious of environmental impacts.
- planned obsolescence and the generation of desire
‘Modern’ consumer goods are designed to wear out/break down. Consumers are led to believe that
their life is incomplete without the latest and ‘best’ consumer goods.
- illusions of choice
Consumer choice is often an illusion. Although products seem different, they are often nearly the
same. Brand power has become more important than quality and production origin.
- addictive consumption
Distinction between ‘commodified consumption’ (endless cycles of consumption that never fulfil our
needs) and consumption that meets ‘authentic’ needs. For ‘commodities’, the distinction between
‘use value’ and ‘exchange value’ is blurred. We’ve become addicted to having rather than being. We
should take time to think deeply about difference between needs and wants.
- ethical consumption and voluntary simplicity
Ethical consumption
Desire to consume carefully/wisely, overlaps with growth in individual concern about healthy living.
It sparked growth of global networks/projects.
Strengths: leads to more sustainable consumption, less poverty, more individual consciousness.
Weaknesses: time-consuming, sometimes higher priced and thus decreasing purchasing power.
, Voluntary simplicity
‘Voluntary simplicity’= efforts to live with less as a result of conscious decision to avoid
waste/complexity in life. Easier to sustain low-consumption lifestyle if you feel you are part of a
global movement.
Strengths: less stress related to work, more leisure time, less waste, less complexity in life.
Weaknesses: less luxurious lifestyle, less certainty in income.
- collaborative consumption
Collaboration sometimes works better than competition in ensuring maximum use of limited
resources. Collaborative consumption= efforts to increase cooperation in purchase/consumption of
goods, aimed at reducing costs/wastage + social benefits. New communication technologies give
collaborative consumption schemes greater chance of success.
Strengths: decreases waste-production and depletion of natural resources.
Weaknesses: can be exploited (take Airbnb’s issues in recent years), takes effort.
- the search for the good life
Governments need to create a policy framework that encourages people to break existing
consumption habits and penalises wasteful consumption. Favours four Es model:
- Ensuring incentive structures and institutional rules favour more sustainable behaviour.
- Enabling access to pro-environmental lifestyle choices
- Engaging people in initiatives
- Exemplifying desired changes within government’s policies/practices.
Chapter 4 Global challenges as wicked problems
Key concepts and concerns
- the concept of ‘wicked problems’
1. There can be no definitive definition of the problem.
2. There are no true or false solutions, only relatively good or bad responses.
3. They can all be seen as symptoms of other interacting problems.
4. They are unique so there can be no template to follow in responding.
5. Responses are ‘one-shot’ efforts that cannot be replicated.
6. Responses include many ‘stakeholders’ with a wide range of values and priorities.
Three global challenges to sustainability as wicked problems:
1. Emergence of human-induced global climate change
2. Growing dangers of oil dependency
3. Intransigence of global poverty.
IPPC Assessment Reports point to human contribution in climate change.
- climate change mitigation and adaptation
Idea that humans are causing/accelerating climate change became public concern in 2006.
Concerned climate scientists for much longer: Climatologist James Hansen responsible for setting
targets of climate change mitigation (1988). Global climate change wasn’t new, evidence of human
activity contributing to climate change was. Hansen’s appearance at US Congress put climate change
on political agenda. Concerned climate scientists for much longer. Climate change sceptics focus on
yearly fluctuations, while the long view shows clear links between industrial activity and climate
change. Pressure on climate scientists to provide accurate predictions about consequences,
increases.
Weather and climate are not the same. Warming of climate systems → less predictable interplays in
Key concepts and concerns:
- emergence of global environmental concerns in the 1970s
‘Earth Day’-rallies in US and organisations Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace formed. Idea of
‘limits to growth’ has been controversial, because of belief that indefinite growth is still viable. Some
believe free economy malfunctions when there is limited growth.
- significance of Rachel Carson’s 1962 book Silent Spring
Discusses ecological impacts of inorganic pesticides. Sparked upsurge in ecological awareness → start
of ‘modern’ environmental movement.
- Brundtland Report (1987) defines sustainability and links the environmental and social dimensions
Gro Harlem Brundtland presented compelling overview of disturbing global trends. Causal link
between poverty and environmental degradation= poor people are most vulnerable to
environmental hazards and lack resources to implement nature conservation strategies.
- intragenerational and intergenerational equity
Intragenerational equity= equity of opportunity in the present
Intergenerational equity= ‘’ for future generations.
- outcomes of Rio Earth Summit of 1992
- Agenda 21 = action plan for environmental sustainable development.
- Local Agenda 21= devolving responsibilities to sub-national levels.
- Adoption of Climate Change Convention → Kyoto 1997 binding protocol on reducing greenhouse
gas emissions
- UN Convention of Biological Diversity
- Global Environment Facility (GEF), supports economically sustainable development (ESD) in
developing nations.
- strengths and weaknesses of global summits
Strengths: can contribute to finding solutions on a global scale; puts pressure on nation states to take
global challenges more seriously.
Weaknesses: non-binding outcomes thus lack of action taking; global forms of governance are weak
in relation to political power of nation states; narrow perceptions of ‘national interest’.
Montreal, 1987 = rapidly phasing out use of CFC gases that caused ozone hole > Montreal Protocol.
Kyoto climate summit, 1997 = aimed at reducing human-induced climate change. Probable enormous
economic/political ramification involved in reducing emission of greenhouse gases → undermined
political will and boycotting of the summit. Focussed on developing countries.
UN Millennium Summit in New York, 2000 = eight Millennium Development Goals → changed to 17
Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 at the follow-up UN summit.
Copenhagen, 2009 = laid foundations for bilateral negotiations between largest greenhouse gas-
emitting nations but is considered as a failure. Focussed on rapidly expanding economies.
Paris climate summit, 2015 = allowing each nation to set its own emission reduction targets.
- RMIT Principles of Sustainability
1. Acknowledge interconnections at all levels within the biosphere.
2. Acknowledge that there are limits to growth.
3. Remember that prevention is better than cure.
,4. Work to improve intragenerational equity.
5. Face up to the challenges of intergenerational equity.
6. Respect requisite diversity in both nature and culture.
7. Work for relocalisation with global connectedness.
8. Move from consumerism to quality of life goals.
9. Learn how to travel hopefully in a world of uncertainty.
Chapter 3 Consumption and consumerism
Key concepts and concerns:
- the rise of hyperconsumption
Development of ‘consumer capitalism’ in three phases:
1. Proliferation of standardised goods sold at low prices (1880-WO2)
2. Focus on rapid global increase in availability of consumer goods (WO2-1970s)
3. Focus on rapid expansion in the quantity of consumer goods ‘required’ by individuals to operate
effectively (1970s – now) = ‘hyperconsumption’. Driven by anxiety about not succeeding in life and
people’s believe that they can consume their way to happiness.
Hyperconsumption leads to:
- Environmental costs= unsustainable use of natural resources, loss of biodiversity, increasing
emissions of greenhouse gases.
- Social costs= rising economic costs, loss of social connectedness.
- Personal costs= stress associated with working hard to sustain high levels of consumption, feeling of
being on a ‘treadmill’ of never-ending consumption.
- individualism and cocooning
Non-work time is spent inside homes, using electronic devices to keep in touch with others → people
lose sight of their location in the world, making it harder to be conscious of environmental impacts.
- planned obsolescence and the generation of desire
‘Modern’ consumer goods are designed to wear out/break down. Consumers are led to believe that
their life is incomplete without the latest and ‘best’ consumer goods.
- illusions of choice
Consumer choice is often an illusion. Although products seem different, they are often nearly the
same. Brand power has become more important than quality and production origin.
- addictive consumption
Distinction between ‘commodified consumption’ (endless cycles of consumption that never fulfil our
needs) and consumption that meets ‘authentic’ needs. For ‘commodities’, the distinction between
‘use value’ and ‘exchange value’ is blurred. We’ve become addicted to having rather than being. We
should take time to think deeply about difference between needs and wants.
- ethical consumption and voluntary simplicity
Ethical consumption
Desire to consume carefully/wisely, overlaps with growth in individual concern about healthy living.
It sparked growth of global networks/projects.
Strengths: leads to more sustainable consumption, less poverty, more individual consciousness.
Weaknesses: time-consuming, sometimes higher priced and thus decreasing purchasing power.
, Voluntary simplicity
‘Voluntary simplicity’= efforts to live with less as a result of conscious decision to avoid
waste/complexity in life. Easier to sustain low-consumption lifestyle if you feel you are part of a
global movement.
Strengths: less stress related to work, more leisure time, less waste, less complexity in life.
Weaknesses: less luxurious lifestyle, less certainty in income.
- collaborative consumption
Collaboration sometimes works better than competition in ensuring maximum use of limited
resources. Collaborative consumption= efforts to increase cooperation in purchase/consumption of
goods, aimed at reducing costs/wastage + social benefits. New communication technologies give
collaborative consumption schemes greater chance of success.
Strengths: decreases waste-production and depletion of natural resources.
Weaknesses: can be exploited (take Airbnb’s issues in recent years), takes effort.
- the search for the good life
Governments need to create a policy framework that encourages people to break existing
consumption habits and penalises wasteful consumption. Favours four Es model:
- Ensuring incentive structures and institutional rules favour more sustainable behaviour.
- Enabling access to pro-environmental lifestyle choices
- Engaging people in initiatives
- Exemplifying desired changes within government’s policies/practices.
Chapter 4 Global challenges as wicked problems
Key concepts and concerns
- the concept of ‘wicked problems’
1. There can be no definitive definition of the problem.
2. There are no true or false solutions, only relatively good or bad responses.
3. They can all be seen as symptoms of other interacting problems.
4. They are unique so there can be no template to follow in responding.
5. Responses are ‘one-shot’ efforts that cannot be replicated.
6. Responses include many ‘stakeholders’ with a wide range of values and priorities.
Three global challenges to sustainability as wicked problems:
1. Emergence of human-induced global climate change
2. Growing dangers of oil dependency
3. Intransigence of global poverty.
IPPC Assessment Reports point to human contribution in climate change.
- climate change mitigation and adaptation
Idea that humans are causing/accelerating climate change became public concern in 2006.
Concerned climate scientists for much longer: Climatologist James Hansen responsible for setting
targets of climate change mitigation (1988). Global climate change wasn’t new, evidence of human
activity contributing to climate change was. Hansen’s appearance at US Congress put climate change
on political agenda. Concerned climate scientists for much longer. Climate change sceptics focus on
yearly fluctuations, while the long view shows clear links between industrial activity and climate
change. Pressure on climate scientists to provide accurate predictions about consequences,
increases.
Weather and climate are not the same. Warming of climate systems → less predictable interplays in
