Brain and Behavior Exam Prep
Introduction
Brain and behavior
Brain = organ made of nervous tissue (neurons and glial cells)
Behavior = any observable action or reaction in response to external or internal stimuli → observable and
measurable
● Most behavior = nature (inherited) + nurture (learned)
○ Varied between species
In general, the more complex a species nervous system is, the more its behavior is learned
Perspectives on brain and behavior
● What is the relationship between the brain and behavior?
○ Descartes: Dualism = mind and body are distinct and separable, but work together
■ However: Mind-body problem
○ Aristotle: Mentalism = a non materialistic psyche solely responsible for behavior, brain is
not important
○ Darwin: Materialism = rational behavior can be fully explained by the functioning of the
brain and the nervous system
Evolution of the human brain
Darwin’s theory of evolution: Natural selection =
1. Variation
2. Heritability
3. Struggle for existence
4. Survival and reproductive rates
Phylogenetic development = development of higher species from lower ones
Ontogenetic development = development of the individual human from sperm and egg cell
● Classification of life: taxonomy = science of classification
● How this can be presented: cladogram = shows us groups or related organisms as branches on a
tree
History of humankind
● Important: humans do not descend from chimpanzees
○ Common ancestor → same family: hominidae
○ 1% DNA difference
The human brain
● Encephalization quotient (EQ) = actual/expected brain weight (relative to body weight)
● In human evolution: tripled in 4 million years
○ Australopithecus EQ = 2.5
○ Homo sapiens EQ = 7.0
→ Larger brain DOES NOT EQUAL better brain within species, # of connections between
brain cells more important
How did the human brain get so big?
1. Dramatic climate changes → require adaptation
2. Lifestyle changes → require more complex behavior
a. Large social groups
b. Fruit seeking
c. Tool use
3. Brain cooling
, a. Radiator hypothesis: the human brain became a lot larger because the cooling system
has been improved by better blood circulation
4. Neoteny = aging is slowed down and an adult retains the characteristics of a child
a. Permits repeated, sloe and enhanced learning opportunities
Brain anatomy and physiology
Nervous system organization
NS Basics
Behavior → function:
1. Perception
2. Integration of information
3. Action
Plasticity
● Phenotypic plasticity: ability of organisms to produce distinct phenotypes in response to
environmental variation
● Neuroplasticity: ability of NS to undergo physical or
chemical change to…
○ Improve its adaptability to environmental changes
○ Compensate for damage
NS Organization
● Anatomical organization: how the different systems are
structured
● Functional organization: how the different systems work
together
Orientation systems
Describing locations in the brain
● Orientation systems based on frames of reference
○ Relative to human face: brain-body
■ Frame of references: human face
● Dorsal ←→ Ventral = Up ←→ Down
○ Vents are down
■ Ventral (4)
■ Dorsal (3)
● Anterior ←→ Posterior = Front ←→ Back
○ A = front of the face
● Medial ←→ Lateral = In ←→ out
■ Medial (2)
■ Lateral (1)
○ Relative to other parts of the body: spatial
■ Frame of reference = other body parts + body
orientation
● Rostral = Anterior ←→ Caudal =
Posterior
● Superior = Dorsal ←→ Inferior = Ventral
○ Relative to an observer: anatomic
■ Frame of reference = observer
, ■ Indicates the direction of a cut/section through the brain from the perspective of
a viewer
1. Coronal section
a. Coronal cut is like you put on a crown
2. Horizontal section
a. “Cut” on forehead
3. Sagittal section
a. Look at the middle (sagittarius)
Other useful terms when navigating the brain
● Unilateral = structures on one side of the body
● Bilateral = structures on both sides of the body
● Ipsilateral = structures on the same size of the body (left arm and left
leg)
● Contralateral = structures on opposite sides of the body
● Proximal = structures close to each other
● Distal = structures far from each other
1. Superior (Brain - dorsal)
2. Inferior (brain - ventral)
3. Anterior (spinal cord - ventral)
4. Posterior (spinal cord - dorsal)
5. Medial
6. Lateral
1. Anterior
2. Posterior
3. Dorsal/superior
4. Ventral/inferior
5. Superior
6. Inferior
7. Ventral/anterior
8. Dorsal/posterior
1. Horizontal
2. Coronal
3. Sagittal
, Brain structure and function
Brain protection
● Meninges = 3-part membrane protecting the
CNS → from outer to inner
1. Dura mater = “hard mother,” outer shell
2. Arachnoid layer = middle layer
a. Subarachnoid space = space
filled with cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) for cushioning
3. Pia mater = “soft mother,” inner shell
● Possible infections
○ Meningitis = infection of meninges →
stiff neck, head retraction
○ Encephalitis = infection of brain tissue → convulsions, sleep disturbances
Blood supply in the brain
● Surface of the brain is full of blood vessels because of its high oxygen requirements
● What can go wrong:
○ Stroke = sudden appearance of neurological symptoms as a result of severely interrupted
blood flow
1. Ischemic = blood vessel is blocked by a clot
2. Hemorrhagic = blood vessel bursts
Cerebral cortex
● Cerebral cortex = outer layer of the cerebrum
● Composed of folded gray matter
1. Gyrus = ridge
2. Sulcus = groove
a. Fissure = deep sulcus
● Lobes = subdivision of an organ rounded and
surrounded by distinct structural boundaries
○ Frontal
○ Parietal
○ Temporal
○ Occipital
● General trend: higher structure → more
complex and integrated function
Inside the brain
● Gray matter
○ Composition: nerve cells
○ Function: collect and modify info
○ Color: capillaries → pink/brown
● White matter
○ Composition: nerve fibers
○ Function: connect brain cells
○ Color: fatty insulation → white
○ Prominent structure: corpus callosum
● Ventricular system = production and circulation of CSF
○ Functions
Introduction
Brain and behavior
Brain = organ made of nervous tissue (neurons and glial cells)
Behavior = any observable action or reaction in response to external or internal stimuli → observable and
measurable
● Most behavior = nature (inherited) + nurture (learned)
○ Varied between species
In general, the more complex a species nervous system is, the more its behavior is learned
Perspectives on brain and behavior
● What is the relationship between the brain and behavior?
○ Descartes: Dualism = mind and body are distinct and separable, but work together
■ However: Mind-body problem
○ Aristotle: Mentalism = a non materialistic psyche solely responsible for behavior, brain is
not important
○ Darwin: Materialism = rational behavior can be fully explained by the functioning of the
brain and the nervous system
Evolution of the human brain
Darwin’s theory of evolution: Natural selection =
1. Variation
2. Heritability
3. Struggle for existence
4. Survival and reproductive rates
Phylogenetic development = development of higher species from lower ones
Ontogenetic development = development of the individual human from sperm and egg cell
● Classification of life: taxonomy = science of classification
● How this can be presented: cladogram = shows us groups or related organisms as branches on a
tree
History of humankind
● Important: humans do not descend from chimpanzees
○ Common ancestor → same family: hominidae
○ 1% DNA difference
The human brain
● Encephalization quotient (EQ) = actual/expected brain weight (relative to body weight)
● In human evolution: tripled in 4 million years
○ Australopithecus EQ = 2.5
○ Homo sapiens EQ = 7.0
→ Larger brain DOES NOT EQUAL better brain within species, # of connections between
brain cells more important
How did the human brain get so big?
1. Dramatic climate changes → require adaptation
2. Lifestyle changes → require more complex behavior
a. Large social groups
b. Fruit seeking
c. Tool use
3. Brain cooling
, a. Radiator hypothesis: the human brain became a lot larger because the cooling system
has been improved by better blood circulation
4. Neoteny = aging is slowed down and an adult retains the characteristics of a child
a. Permits repeated, sloe and enhanced learning opportunities
Brain anatomy and physiology
Nervous system organization
NS Basics
Behavior → function:
1. Perception
2. Integration of information
3. Action
Plasticity
● Phenotypic plasticity: ability of organisms to produce distinct phenotypes in response to
environmental variation
● Neuroplasticity: ability of NS to undergo physical or
chemical change to…
○ Improve its adaptability to environmental changes
○ Compensate for damage
NS Organization
● Anatomical organization: how the different systems are
structured
● Functional organization: how the different systems work
together
Orientation systems
Describing locations in the brain
● Orientation systems based on frames of reference
○ Relative to human face: brain-body
■ Frame of references: human face
● Dorsal ←→ Ventral = Up ←→ Down
○ Vents are down
■ Ventral (4)
■ Dorsal (3)
● Anterior ←→ Posterior = Front ←→ Back
○ A = front of the face
● Medial ←→ Lateral = In ←→ out
■ Medial (2)
■ Lateral (1)
○ Relative to other parts of the body: spatial
■ Frame of reference = other body parts + body
orientation
● Rostral = Anterior ←→ Caudal =
Posterior
● Superior = Dorsal ←→ Inferior = Ventral
○ Relative to an observer: anatomic
■ Frame of reference = observer
, ■ Indicates the direction of a cut/section through the brain from the perspective of
a viewer
1. Coronal section
a. Coronal cut is like you put on a crown
2. Horizontal section
a. “Cut” on forehead
3. Sagittal section
a. Look at the middle (sagittarius)
Other useful terms when navigating the brain
● Unilateral = structures on one side of the body
● Bilateral = structures on both sides of the body
● Ipsilateral = structures on the same size of the body (left arm and left
leg)
● Contralateral = structures on opposite sides of the body
● Proximal = structures close to each other
● Distal = structures far from each other
1. Superior (Brain - dorsal)
2. Inferior (brain - ventral)
3. Anterior (spinal cord - ventral)
4. Posterior (spinal cord - dorsal)
5. Medial
6. Lateral
1. Anterior
2. Posterior
3. Dorsal/superior
4. Ventral/inferior
5. Superior
6. Inferior
7. Ventral/anterior
8. Dorsal/posterior
1. Horizontal
2. Coronal
3. Sagittal
, Brain structure and function
Brain protection
● Meninges = 3-part membrane protecting the
CNS → from outer to inner
1. Dura mater = “hard mother,” outer shell
2. Arachnoid layer = middle layer
a. Subarachnoid space = space
filled with cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) for cushioning
3. Pia mater = “soft mother,” inner shell
● Possible infections
○ Meningitis = infection of meninges →
stiff neck, head retraction
○ Encephalitis = infection of brain tissue → convulsions, sleep disturbances
Blood supply in the brain
● Surface of the brain is full of blood vessels because of its high oxygen requirements
● What can go wrong:
○ Stroke = sudden appearance of neurological symptoms as a result of severely interrupted
blood flow
1. Ischemic = blood vessel is blocked by a clot
2. Hemorrhagic = blood vessel bursts
Cerebral cortex
● Cerebral cortex = outer layer of the cerebrum
● Composed of folded gray matter
1. Gyrus = ridge
2. Sulcus = groove
a. Fissure = deep sulcus
● Lobes = subdivision of an organ rounded and
surrounded by distinct structural boundaries
○ Frontal
○ Parietal
○ Temporal
○ Occipital
● General trend: higher structure → more
complex and integrated function
Inside the brain
● Gray matter
○ Composition: nerve cells
○ Function: collect and modify info
○ Color: capillaries → pink/brown
● White matter
○ Composition: nerve fibers
○ Function: connect brain cells
○ Color: fatty insulation → white
○ Prominent structure: corpus callosum
● Ventricular system = production and circulation of CSF
○ Functions
